1、English Lexicology（英語詞匯學）Lexicology（詞?匚學）：is a branch of linguistics, inquiring into the origins and meanings ofwords.The Nature and Scope of English lexicology:English lexicology aims at investigating and studying the morphological structures of English words and word equivalents, their semantic st

2、ructures, relations, historical development, formation and usages.The subjects that English Lexicology correlated with and extent toEnglish Lexicology is correlated with such linguistic disciplines as morphology（ 形態學）, semantics（語義學）,etymology（ 詞源學）,stylistics （文體論）and lexicography（ 詞典學）The reason f

3、or a student to study English lexicology:According to the textbook, English Lexicology will definitely be beneficial for students of English.A good knowledge of morphological structures of English words and rules of word-formation will help learners develop their personal vocabulary and consciously

4、increase their word power. The information of the historical development and the principles of classification will give them a deeper understanding of word-meaning and enable them to organize, classify and store words more effectively. The understanding and their sense relations will gradually raise

5、 their awareness of meaning and usage, and enable them use words more accurately and appropriately. A working knowledge of dictionaries will improve their skills of using reference books and raise their problem-solving ability and efficiency of individual study.Chapter 1-Basic concepts of words and

6、vocabularyWord （詞的定義）：A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function. （1）a minimal free form of a language （2）a sound unity （3）a unit of meaning （4）a form that can function alone in a sentenceSound and meaning（聲音與意義）：almost arbitrary,“ no logica

7、l relationship between thesound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itselfSound and form （讀音和形式）：不統一的四個原因（1） the English alphabet was adoptedfrom the Romans,which does not have a separate letter to represent each other（2）the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than s

8、pelling over the years （3） some of the difference were creates by the early scribes（4） the borrowings is an importantchannel of enriching the English vocabularyVocabulary（詞?匚）：all the words in a language make up its vocabularyClassification of English Words :By use frequency:basic word stock&nonbasi

9、c vocabularyBy notion:content words&functional wordsBy origin:native words&borrowed wordsThe basic word stock（基本詞?匚）：is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated overcenturies and forms the common core of the language. Though it constitute a small percentage of the EV, it is the most important pa

10、rt of vocabulary.The Fundamental Features of the Basic Word Stock（基本詞匯的特征）：1）All-National character（全民通用性 most important ） 2）Stability （相對穩定性）3）Productivity（多產性）4）Polysemy （多義性）5）Collocability （可搭配性）沒有上述特征的 words: （1）Terminology（術語）（2）Jargon （行話）（3）slang （俚語） （4）Argot （暗語）（5） Dialectal words（方言）（6）

11、Archaisms （古語） Neologisms （新詞語）:Neologisms means newly-created words or expressions, or words that have taken on new meanings.（email）Content words/notional wordsfunctional words/empty words實詞（cloud, run walk, never, five, frequently ） and 虛詞（on, of, and, be, but ）Native Words and Borrowed WordsNativ

12、e words（本族語詞）：known as Anglo-Saxon words （50,000-60,000）, are wordsbrought to Britain in the 5th century by the Germanic tribes. （mainstream of the basic word-stocks）.Two other features:neutral in style （2）frequent in useBorrowed words/Loan words（夕卜來語詞）：words taken over from foreignlanguages.（80% of

13、 modern EV）4 Types of loan words:denizens（同化詞）:（shirt from skyrta（ON）aliens （非同化詞 / 夕卜來詞）：are borrowed words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling （kowtow （CH） 磕頭）translation loans（ 譯借詞）:按其他語言方式組成英語long time no see （from China）semantic loans （借義詞）： they are not borrowed with

14、reference to the form,but their meanings are borrowedthe development of the English VocabularyThe Indo-European Language Family(歐語系)The Eight Groups in Indo-European Family of Languages (8 大印歐語群)The Eastern set:The Balto-slavic Group(波羅的-斯拉夫語族)： Russian,Bulgarian,Polish,Czech etc.The Indo-Iranian Gr

15、oup(印度-伊朗語族)： Hindi,Bengali,Persian etc.(3)The Armenian Group (亞美尼亞語族)： Armenian.(4)The Albanian Group (阿爾巴尼亞語族)： Albanian.The Western set:(5)The Hellenic Group(古希臘語族)：Greek.(6)The Italian Group(意大利語族): Latin ,Romance languages(French,Italian,Spanish,portuguese,Romanian) etc.(7)The Celtic Group(凱爾特語

16、族)：Irish,Welsh,Breton etc.(8)The Germanic Group(日耳曼語族)：Flemish,German,Dutch,Scandinavian(Norweigian, Swedish,Danish,Icelandic) etc.The Three Stages of Development of the English Vocabulary:1 Old English (450-1100) (vocabulary 50,000 to 60,000):was I high inflected language.2 Middle English (1150-150

17、0):retaines much fewer inflections3 Modern English (1500-up to now): in fact more than 25% of modern E words come almost directly from classical languages. In Modern E, words endings were mostly lost with just a few expections.English has evolved from a synthetic language(Old English) to the present

18、 analytic language.Modes of Vocabulary Development(詞匯的發展模式):1)creation 創造新詞： the formation of new words by using the existing materials,namely toots,affixes and other elements.(最重要方式 )2)semantic change舊詞新義 :does not increase the number of word forms but createmany more new useages of the words.borro

19、wing 借用夕卜來詞 ：constitute merely 6 to 7 percent of all new wordsReviving words or obsolete words also contributes to the growth of English vocabulary though quite insignificant.Word Formation IMorpheme（ 詞素）:the smallest functioning unit in the composition of wordsAllomorph（詞素變體）:is a different variant

20、 form of a morpheme , differ in phonologicaland spelling form, but at the same in function and meaningType of Morpheme（ 詞素的分類）Free Morphemes （自 由詞素）：have complete meaning in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences. A free morpheme is one that can stand by itself. （independe

21、nt）.Bound Morpheme（ 粘著語素）:A bound morpheme is one that cannot stand by itself.Bound Morpheme includes two types: （1） bound root（粘附詞根）（2）Affix（詞綴）Affixes can be put into two groups:1）Inflectional affixes （屈折詞綴）:affixes attached to the end of words to indicategrammatical relationships are inflectional

22、,thus known as inflectional morphemes.2）Derivational affixes（ 派生詞綴）:A） prefix: A prefix comes before words. B）suffix:An adjective suffix （形容詞后綴） that is added to the stem, whatever class is belongs to , the result will be an adjective.Free Morpheme =free root （自 由詞根）Morpheme（詞素）prefisuffixI Bound ro

23、ot bound derivational affix -inflectionalRoot and stem（詞根和詞干）The differences between root and stem:A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity.A stem is the surplus part after the cutting of inflectional morpheme in a word with inflectional morp

24、hemes,can be further analyzed, it sometimes could be a root.Word-Formation II( 構詞法)I.Affixation 詞綴法 (Derivation 派生法)：the formation of words by adding word-formaing or derivational affixes to stem.Prefixation( 前綴法):Its the formation of new words by adding a prefixes to stems.1)Negative prefixes( 否定前綴

25、):un-,non-,in-,dis,a- ,il-,ir-,im-,etc.disobey(not obey)2)Reversative prefixes(逆反前綴)：un-,de- , dis- etc. unwrap(open)Pejorative prefixes: mis (貶義前綴)： mis-, mal-, pseudo- etc.misconduct(bad behaviour)Prefixes of degree or size(程度前綴)：arch-,extra-,hyper-,macro-,micro-,mini-,out-,over-,sub-,super-,sur-,

26、ultra-,under-,ect. overweightPrefixes of orientation and attitude(傾向態度前綴)：contra-,counter-,anti-,pro-etc.anti-nuclear6)Locative prefixes(方位前綴)：extra-,fore-,inter-,intra-,tele-,trans-, etc.extraordinary(more than ordinary)Prefixes of time and order(時間和順序前綴):fore-,pre-,post-,ex-,re- etc. monorail(oner

27、ail)Number prefixes(數字前綴):uni- , mono-, bi- , di-, tri-,multi- , poly- , semi-,etc.bilingual(concerning two languages)Miscellaneous prefixes(混雜前綴)： auto-, neo-, pan-, vice-.vice-chairman(deputychairman)(2)Suffixation (后綴法) :Its the formation of a new word by adding suffixes to stems.1)noun suffixes

28、2)adjective suffixes 3)Adverb suffixes 4)verb suffixes2.Compounding 復合法 (also called composition )Compounding: is the formation of new words by joining two or more stemsCompounds are written in three ways: solid 連寫(airmail) , hyphenated 帶連字符 (air-conditioning)and open 分開寫(air force, air raid)Formati

29、on of compounds(復合詞的形式)(1) noun compounds : e.g. : air + plane = airplane,flower + pot = flower pot adjective compounds : e.g. acid + head = acid-head(3) verb compounds : e.g. house + keep = housekeep3.Conversion 轉類法Conversion: is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to anothe

30、r class.(功能轉換，又叫零派生.functional shift/zero-derivation )4.Blending 拼綴法Blending : is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word. e.g: motor + hotel = motel, smoke + fog = smog, formula + translation = FORTRAN.Clipping 截短法Clipping:is to shorten a lon

31、ger word by cutting a part off the original and using what remains instead.e.g. plane from airplane, phone from telephone.四種形式：.Front clippings 刪節前面 (phone from telephone).Back clippings 刪節后面 (dorm from dormitory).Front and back clippings前后刪節 (flu from influenza).Phrase clippings短語刪節 (pop from popul

32、ar music).Acronymy首字母縮寫法Acronymy:is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of names of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms.Initialism (首字母縮寫詞法)：initialisms are words pronounced letter by letter. e.g.:BBC(for British Broadcasting cor

33、poration)(2) Acronym (首字母拼音法):Acronyms are words formed from initial letters butpronounced as a normal word. E.g.:TEFL(teaching English as a foreign language)7.Back-formation(逆生法，逆構詞)s the method ofBack-formation is considered to be the opposi te process of suffixation. It creating words by removing

34、 the supposed suffixes. (greed from greedy)8.Words From Proper Name（專有名詞轉成法）:Names of people, places, book, and tradenames （e.g.: sir watt siemens（人名）-watt （瓦特，電功率單位）Chapter 5 Word MeaningThe meanings of “ Meaning（ 意義的意義）Reference （所指）:It is the relationship between language and the word. It is the

35、arbitrary and conventional. It is a kind of abstraction, yet with the help of context, it can refer to something specific.Concept（概念）:which is beyond language, is the result of human cognition（ 認識）,reflecting the objective world in the human mind.Sense （意義）:It denotes the relationship inside the lan

36、guage. The sense of an expressicis its place in a system of semantic relationshi ps with other expressions in the language.Motivation （理據）:It accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning.） Onomatopoeic motivation（擬聲理據）:words whose sounds suggest their meaning, forthese w

37、ords were creates by imitating the natural sounds or noises. Knowing the sounds of the words means understanding the meaning. E.g.: bang, ping-pong, ha ha.2）Morphological motivation（形態理據）:multi-morphemic words and the meaning of manyare the sum total of the morphemes combines. E.g.: airmail, miniski

38、rt . 例夕卜： black market, ect.3）Semantic motivation（詞義理據）： refers to the mental associations suggested by theconceptual meaning of a word. It explains the connection between the literal sense and figurative sense of the word. E.g:the foot of the mountain（foot）4）Etymological motivation（詞源理據）:the histor

39、y of the word explains the meaning of theword. E.g:pen-featherTypes of meaning（詞義的類另1J ）I.Grammatical Meaning（語法意義）:indicates the grammatical concept or relationships（becomes important only in actual context）.Lexical Meaning（詞匯意義）（Lexical meaning and grammatical meaning make up the word-meaning）Lexi

40、cal meaning has 2 components 內容：Conceptual meaning（ 概念意義）and associative meaning（關聯意義）Conceptual meaning（ 概念意義 ）:also known as denotative meaning（ 外延意義）is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word-meaning.Associative meaning（ 關聯意義）:is the secondary meaning supplemented to the co

41、nceptual meaning.4types:Connotative （內涵 意義）：the overtones or associations suggested by theconceptual meaning, traditionally known as connotations.（例如 母親“經常與愛“關心“溫柔”聯系起來） Stylistic （文體意義）： many words have stylistic features, which make them appropriate for different contexts.Affective （感情意義）：indicate

42、s the speaker s attitude towards thrpbirag）nin question.這種情感價值觀分兩類：褒義和貶義 appreciative & pejorativeCollocative （搭配意義）： is the part of the word-meaning suggested by the wordsbefore or after the word in discussion.Chapter 6 -Sense relation and semantic field（語義關系和語義場）Polysemy（多義關系）Two approached to pol

43、ysemy（多義關系的兩種研究方法）：.diachronic approach（ 歷時方法）:from the diachronic point of view, polysemy is assumed to be the result of growth and development of the semantic structure of one and same word. First meaning is the primary meaning , the later meanings are called derived meanings. synchronic approach

44、（ 共時方法）:synchronically, polysemy is viewed as the coexistence of various meanings of the same word in a certain historical period of time.基本意義是central meaning ,次要意義是 derived meaning.Two processes of development（詞義的兩種發展類型）：radiation （輻射型）：is a semantic process in which the primary meaning stands at t

45、hecentre and the secondary meanings proceed out of it in every direction like rayes. （e.g: face, neck）concatenation （連鎖型）:is the semantic process in which the meaning of a word movegradually away from its first sense by successive shifts until there is not a sign of connection between the sense that

46、 is finally developed and that which the term had at the beginning.（e.g:treacle）In radiation, each of the derived meaning is directly connected to the primary meaning.In concatenation, each of the later meaning is related only to the preceding one like chains. Though the latest sense can be traced b

47、ack to the original, there is no direct connection in between.They are closely related, being different stages of the development leading to polysemy. Generally, radiation precedes concatenation. In many cases, the two processes work together, complementing each other.Homonymy（同形同音異義關系）:words differ

48、ent in meaning but either identical both insound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling.Types of homonyms（同音同形異義關系的類別）1） Perfect homonyms（完全同音同形異義詞）：words identical both in sound and spelling,but different in meaning.2）Homographs（同形異義詞）：words identical only in spelling, but different in

49、 sound andmeaning.（最多最常見）3） Homophones （同音異義詞） ：words identical only in sound but different in spelling and meaning.Origins of homonyms （ 同形同音異義詞的來源 ）change in sound and spelling : （eare-ear, lang-long, langian-long）borrowing （feria-fair, beallu-ball, baller-ball ）（同音同形異義詞和多義詞的區別）:Shortening（縮略）：（ad

50、-advertisement,）The differentiation of Homonyms from Polysemes 1）The fundamental difference : Homonymy refers to different words which happen to share the same form and polysemy are the one and same word which has several distinguishable meanings.詞源）：Homonymys are from different語義關聯 ）:The various2）O

51、ne important criterion is to see their etymology（ sources. Polysemant is from the same source.3）The second principle consideration is semantic relatedness（ meanings of polysemant are correlated and connected to one central meaning. Meanings of different homonymys have nothing to do with one another.

52、 In dictionaries, a polysemant has its meaning all listed under one headword whereas homonyms are listed as separate entries.Rhetoric features of homonyms（同形同音異義詞的修辭特色）:As homonyms are identicalin sound or spelling, particularly homophones, they are often employed to create puns for desired effect o

53、f, say, humor, sarcasm or ridicule.Synonymy（同義關系 ）:one of two or more words in the English language which have thesame or very nearly the same essential meaning .Types of Synonymy（同義詞的類別）：Absolute synonyms （完全同義詞） ：also known as complete synonyms are words whichare identical in meaning in all aspect

54、s, i.e. both in grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, including conceptual and associative meanings. Absolute synonyms are restricted to highly specialized vocabulary in lexicology.relative synonyms（相對同義詞）：also called near-synonyms are similar or nearly thesame in denotation, but embrace differen

55、t shades of meaning or different degrees of a given quality.（e.g:change/alter/vary, stagger/reel/totter, strange/odd/queer,idle/lazy/indolent）Sources of synonyms（同義詞的來源）：1）Borrowing （借詞）： 最重要的來源 （room-chamber, foe-enemy, help-aid, leave-depart, wise-sage, buy-purchase）2）Dialects and regional English

56、（方言和地區英語）3）Figurative and euphemistic use of words （單詞的修飾和委婉用法）:occupation/profession-walk of life, dreamer-star-gazer, drunk-elevated, lie-distort of fact.4）Coincidence with idiomatic expressions（與習慣表達一致） :win-gain the upper hand,decide- make up one s mind, fin-get through, hesitate-be in two minds

57、, help-lend one a hand.Discrimination of Synonymsdifference in denotation夕卜延不同.Synonyms may differ in the range and intensity ofmeaning.(rich-wealthy, work-toil, want-wish-desire)difference in connotation 內涵不同.By connotation we mean the stylistic and emotive colouring of words. Some words share the

58、same denotation but differ in their stylistic appropriateness.( 借詞：answer-respond, storm-tempest, wood-forest, handy-manual,unlike-dissimilar, homely-domestic, fleshy-carnal. 中 性 詞 ： policeman-constable-bobby-cop, ask-beg-request. 古 語詞、 詩歌：ire/anger, bliss-happiness, forlorn-distresses, dire-dreadfu

59、l, list-listen, enow-enough, save-expect, mere-lake )difference in application. Many words are synonymous in meaning but difference in usage in simple terms. They form different collocations and fit into difference sentence patterns. (allow sb. to do sth.- let sb. do sth. / answer the letter-reply t

60、o the letter)Antonymy (反義關系 ):it is concerned with semantic opposition. Antonyms can be defined as words which are opposite in meaning.Types of Antonyms:1)contradictory terms ( 矛盾反義詞 ):these antonyms truly represent oppositeness of meaning. 特點： The assertion of one is the denial of the other. Such a