1、Linguistics supplementary exercisesChapter 1 Introduction. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False: 1. Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2. Linguistics studies particular language, not languages in general.3. A scientific study of lang

2、uage is based on what the linguist thinks. 4. In the study of linguistics, hypotheses formed should be based on language facts and checked against the observed facts. 5. General linguistics is generally the study of language as a whole. 6. General linguistics, which relates itself to the research of

3、 other areas, studies the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study. 7. Phonetics is different from phonology in that the latter studies the combinations of the sounds to convey meaning in communication. 8. Morphology studies how words can be forme

4、d to produce meaningful sentences. 9. The study of the ways in which morphemes can be combined to form words is called morphology. 10. Syntax is different from morphology in that the former not only studies the morphemes, but also the combination of morphemes into words and words into sentences. 11.

5、 The study of meaning in language is known as semantics. 12. Both semantics and pragmatics study meanings. 13. Pragmatics is different from semantics in that pragmatics studies meaning not in isolation, but in context. 14. Social changes can often bring about language changes. 15. Sociolinguistics i

6、s the study of language in relation to society. 16. Modern linguistics is mostly prescriptive, but sometimes descriptive. 17. Modern linguistics is different from traditional grammar.18. A diachronic study of language is the description of language at some point in time. 19. Modern linguistics regar

7、ds the written language as primary, not the written language. 20. The distinction between competence and performance was proposed by F. de Saussure. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given: 21. Chomsky defines “competence” as the ideal users k_ of the ru

8、les of his language. 22. Langue refers to the a_ linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community while the parole is the concrete use of the conventions and application of the rules. 23. D_ is one of the design features of human language which refers to the phenomenon that language

9、 consists of two levels: a lower level of meaningless individual sounds and a higher level of meaningful units. 24. Language is a system of a_ vocal symbols used for human communication. 25. The discipline that studies the rules governing the formation of words into permissible sentences in language

10、s is called s_. 26. Human capacity for language has a g_ basis, but the details of language have to be taught and learned. 27. P _ refers to the realization of langue in actual use. 28. Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the settlement of some practical problems. The study of suc

11、h applications is generally known as a_ linguistics.29. Language is p_ in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. In other words, they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences which they have never heard before.30. Linguistics

12、 is generally defined as the s _ study of language. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement: 31. If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be _. A. prescriptiveB. analytic C. descriptiveD

13、. linguistic 32. Which of the following is not a design feature of human language? A. ArbitrarinessB. Displacement C. DualityD. Meaningfulness 33. Modern linguistics regards the written language as _. A. primaryB. correct C. secondaryD. stable 34. In modern linguistics, speech is regarded as more ba

14、sic than writing, because _. A. in linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing B. speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed C. speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue D. All of the above 35. A historical stu

15、dy of language is a _ study of language. A. synchronicB. diachronicC. prescriptiveD. comparative 36. Saussure took a(n) _ view of language, while Chomsky looks at language from a _ point of view. A. sociologicalpsychologicalB. psychologicalsociological C. appliedpragmaticD.semanticlinguistic 37. Acc

16、ording to F. de Saussure, _ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the mem- bers of a speech community.A. paroleB. performance C. langueD. Language 38. Language is said to be arbitrary because there is no logical connection between _ and meanings. A. senseB. sounds C. objectsD. ideas

17、 39. Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This feature is called _, A. displacementB. duality C. flexibilityD. cultural transmission40. The details of any language system is passed on from one generation to the next through _, rather than by

18、 instinct. A. learningB. teaching C. booksD. both A and B . Define the following terms: 41. Linguistics42. Phonology43. Syntax44. Pragmatics 45. Psycholinguistics46. Language47. Phonetics48. Morphology49. Semantics50. Sociolinguistics51. Applied Linguistics52. Arbitrariness53. Productivity54. Displa

19、cement55. Duality56. Design Features 57. Competence58. Performance59. Langue60. Parole. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples for illustration if necessary: 61. Language is generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human commu- nication.

20、 Explain it in detail. 62. What are the design features of human language? Illustrate them with examples. 63. How is modern linguistics different from traditional grammar? 64. How do you understand the distinction between a synchronic study and a diachronic study? 65. Why does modern linguistics reg

21、ard the spoken form of language as primary, not the written? 66. What are the major distinctions between langue and parole?67. How do you understand competence and performance?68. Saussures distinction between langue and parole seems similar to Chomskys distinction between competence and performance

22、. What do you think are their major differences?69. Do you think human language is entirely arbitrary? Why? Chapter 2  Phonology. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False: 1. Voicing is a phonological feature that distinguishes meaning in both Chinese and English. 2

23、. If two phonetically similar sounds occur in the same environments and they distinguish meaning, they are said to be in complementary distribution. 3. A phone is a phonetic unit that distinguishes meaning. 4. English is a tone language while Chinese is not.1. 語言的普遍特征：任意性arbitrariness雙層結構duality 既由聲

24、音和意義結構多產性productivity移位性displacement:我們能用語言可以表達許多不在場的東西文化傳播性cultural transmission 2。語言的功能：傳達信息功能informative人濟功能：interpersonal行事功能：Performative表情功能：Emotive寒暄功能：Phatic娛樂功能recreatinal元語言功能 metalingual3. 語言學linguistics：包括六個分支語音學Phonetics音位學 phonology形態學 Morphology句法學 syntax語義學 semantics語用學 pragmatics4.

25、現代結構主義語言學創始人：Ferdinand de saussure提出語言學中最重要的概念對之一：語言與言語language and parole ，語言之語言系統的整體，言語則只待某個個體在實際語言使用環境中說出的具體話語5. 語法創始人：Noam Chomsky提出概念語言能力與語言運用competence and performance1. Which of the following statements can be used to describe displacement. one of the unique properties of language:a. we can e

26、asily teach our children to learn a certain languageb. we can use both 'shu' and 'tree' to describe the same thing.c. we can u se language to refer to something not presentd. we can produce sentences that have never been heard before. 2.What is the most important function of language

27、?a. interpersonalb. phaticc. informatived.metallingual3.The function of the sentence "A nice day, isn't it ?"is _a informative b. phaticc. directive d. performative4.The distinction between competence and performance is proposed by _a saussureb. hallidayc. Chomskyd. the prague school5.

28、 Who put forward the distinction between language and parole?a. saussureb. chomsky c. hallidayd anomymous第二節 語音學phonetics1.發音器官由聲帶the vocal cords和三個回聲腔組成 2.輔音consonant：there is an obstruction of the air stream at some point of the vocal tract.3.輔音的發音方式爆破音 complete obstruction鼻音 nasals破裂音 plosives部分阻

29、塞輔音 partial obstruction擦音 fricatives破擦音 affricates等4.輔音清濁特征voicing輔音的送氣特征 aspiration5.元音vowel分類標準舌翹位置，舌高和嘴唇的形狀6雙元音 diphthongs,有元音過渡 vowel glides1. Articulatory phonetics mainly studies _.a. the physical properties of the sounds produced in speechb. the perception of soundsc. the combination of sound

30、sd. the production of sounds 2. The distinction between vowel s and consonants lies in _a. the place of articulation b.the obstruction f airstreamc. the position of the tongued. the shape of the lips3. What is the common factor of the three sounds: p, k ta. voicelessb. spreadc.voicedd.nasal4. What p

31、honetic feature distinguish the p in please and the p in speak?a. voicingb. aspirationc.roundnessd. nasality5.Which of the following is not a distinctive feature in English?a. voicing b.nasalc. approximationd. aspiration6.The phonological features of the consonant k are _a. voiced stopb. voiceless s

32、topc. voiced fricatived. voiceless fricative7.p is divverent from k in _a. the manner of articulationb. the shape of the lipsc. the vibration of the vocal cordsd.the palce of articualtion8.Vibration of the vocal cords results in _a. aspirationb.nasalityc. obstructiond. voicing第三節 音位學 phonology1.音位學與

33、語音學的區別：語音學著重于語音的自然屬性，主要關注所有語言中人可能發出的所有聲音；音位學則強調語音的社會功能，其對象是某一種語言中可以用來組合成詞句的那些語音。 2.音位phoneme：最小語音單位3.音位變體allophones:讀音差別4.對比性分布：如果兩個音段出現在同一個語音環境中，而且產生了兩個不同的單詞，5.互補性分布；如果兩個基本相似的音段絕不會出現在相同的語音環境中，那么它們之間就是互補性分布的關系，如送氣p絕不會出現在s之后，不送氣的p絕不會出現在詞首6.音節syllable，分為節首onset，節峰peak，節尾coda7.輔音群:一般作為音節節首的輔音群不能超過三個福音，

34、節尾不能超過4個8.最小語音對minimal pairsI. Introduction1. What is LanguageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.2. What is Linguistics(語言學)Linguistics is the scientific study of language.3.Some Basic Distinctions(區分) in Linguistics3.1 Speech and WritingOne general principl

35、e(原則) of linguistic analysis is the primacy of speech over writing. Writing gives language new scope(范疇) and uses that speech does not have.3.2 Descriptive(描述性) or Prescriptive(說明性)A linguistic study is descriptive if it describes and analyses facts observed; it is prescriptive if it tries to lay do

36、wn rules for "correct" behavior.3.3 Synchronic(共時) and Diachronic(歷時) StudiesThe description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study and The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.3.4 Langue(語言) and Parole(言語)This is a distinction made

37、by the Swiss linguist F.De Saussure (索緒爾）early last century. langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and parole refers to the actualized(實際的) language, or realization of langue. 3.5 Competence(能力)and Performance(行為)Competence is the ideal langu

38、age user's knowledge of the rules of his language. Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances(發聲).4. The Scope of LinguisticsGeneral linguistics is the study of language as a whole. Phonetics(語音學) is the branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech

39、 sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription. Phonology(音韻學) is the branch of linguistics which studies the sound patterns of languages.Morphology(詞法) is the branch of linguistics which studies the form of words.Syntax(句法) is the branch of linguistics which st

40、udies the rules governing the combination of words into sentences.Semantics(語義學) is the branch of linguistics which studies the meaning of language. Applied linguistics(應用語言學) is the study of the teaching of foreign and second languages.Sociolinguistics is the study of the relationship between langu

41、age and society.Psycholinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and the mind.Historical Linguistics(歷史語言學) is the study of language changes.Anthropological linguistics(人文語言學) uses the theories and methods of anthropology to study language variation and language use in relation to

42、 the cultural patterns and beliefs of man.Neurolinguistics(神經語言學) studies the neurological basis of language development and use in human beings.Mathematical linguistics(數學語言學) studies the mathematical features of language, often employing models and concepts of mathematics.Computational linguistics

43、(計算語言學) is an approach to linguistics in which mathematical techniques and concepts are applied, often with the aid of a computer.II. Phonetics(語音學）1. scope of phoneticsSpeech sounds may be studied from different angles, thus we have at least three branches of phonetics:Articulatory phonetics(發音語音學）

44、we may examine the way in which a speech sound is produced to discover which vocal organs are involved and how they coordinate(協調） in the process.Auditory phonetics （聽覺語音學）we may look into the impression a speaker makes on the hearer as mediated(調節） by the ear, the auditory nerve(神經） and the brain.A

45、coustic phonetics (聲學語音學） we study the physical properties of speech sounds, as transmitted（傳送） between mouth and ear.2. The vocal organsThe vocal organs may be viewed as consisting of three parts, the initiator of the air-stream,(氣流發生器官） the producer of voice（聲音發生器官） and the resonating cavities.（聲音

46、共振器官）3. Consonants(輔音）Places of articulation(發音部位）: bilabial,(雙唇） Labiodentals,（唇齒） dental,（齒） alveolar,（齒齦） retroflex,（卷舌） palate-alveolar,（上齒齦）palatal,（上顎） velar,（軟腭） uvular,（小舌） glottal(聲門）Manners of articulation: plosive,（暴破） nasal,（鼻音） trill,（顫音）lateral,（邊音） fricative,（摩擦） approximant,（近似音） aff

47、ricate（破擦）4. Vowels (元音）The classification of vowels: the height of tongue raising (high, mid, low), the position of the highest part of the tongue(front, central, back), and the degree of lip rounding(rounded, unrounded)III. Phonology（音韻學）1. phonemes(音素）：a distinctive(有區別的） sound in a language.2. A

48、llophones(音位變體）：The nondistinctive sounds are members of the same phoneme.3. Minimal pairs(最小對立體）： word forms which differ from each other only by one sound.4. Free variation (自由變異）：If two sounds occurring in the same environment(環境）, they does not produce a different word form, but merely a differe

49、nt pronunciation of the same word.5. Complementary distribution(補充分類）：Not all the speech sounds occur in the same environment. When two sounds never occur in the same environment.6.Suprasegmental phonology(超音段音位）：the study of phonological properties(性質） of units lager than the segment-phoneme. They

50、are syllable(音節），stress,（重音） word stress, sentence stress. pitch （音調）and intonation（語調）.IV. Morphology（詞法）1. inflection(構形法）：the grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes.(屈折詞綴）2. Word-formation(構詞）：the processes(過程） of word variations signaling lexical relationships.（表明

51、詞法關系） They are compound(合成）and derivation (派生）.3. Morpheme(詞素）： the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content.4. Allomorph(同質異象變體）： some morphemes have considerable variation, for instance, alternate shapes or phonetic forms.5. Types of morphemes: They are roots,(詞根） affi

52、x（詞綴） and stem（詞干）.6. Lexicon(語言詞匯）：in its most general sense, is synonymous with vocabulary.7. Closed-class words(封閉性） and open-class words(開放性）：the former whose membership is fixed or limited and the latter whose membership is in principle(實際上） indefinite or unlimited.8. Word class(詞性）：It displays

53、 a wider range of more precisely defined classes.9. Lexeme(詞位）：the smallest unit in the meaning system of a language that can be distinguished from other smaller units.10. Idiom(習語，成語）：Most phrasal lexemes are idioms. It is especially true for a sequence of words(詞序） which is semantically（語義上） and o

54、ften syntactically(句法上） restricted.（限制）11. Collocation(搭配）： the habitual(習慣的） co-occurrences （同時出現）of individual lexical items.V. Syntax (句法）1. Positional relation or word order（詞序）：the sequential(順序）arrangement of words in a language.2. Construction or constituent (句子結構）： the overall process of int

55、ernal (內部）organization of a grammatical unit .3. Syntactic function(句法功能）： the relationship between a linguistic form and other parts of the linguistic pattern in which it is used. The names of functions are expressed in terms of subjects, objects, predicates, modifiers,(修飾語） complements（補語）, etc.4.

56、 Category(范疇）：It refers to classes and functions in its narrow sense, e.g. noun, verb, subject, predicate, noun phrase, verb phrase, etc. The categories of the noun include number, gender, case and countability.5. Phrase: a single element of structure containing more than one word, and lacking the s

57、ubject-predicate structure typical of clause.6. Clause: a group of words with its own subject and predicate, if it is included in a larger sentence.7. Sentence: It is the minimum part of language that expresses a complete thought.VI. Semantics1. Conceptualism or mentalism (概念主義）：Following F. De Saussure(索學爾）'s "sign" theory, the linguistic sign is said to consist of a signifier （所指）and signified（被指）, i.e., a sound image and a concept, liked by a psychological（心理的） "associative" bond.（相關聯系）2. Mechanism(機械主義