Unit1ThedefinitionofINTERCULTURALCOMMUNICATION1.1“Inter-"comesfromtheLatinwordfor"between",anddictionariesdefinecommunicationasexchanginginformation.Inter-"來自拉丁語，意思是"在之間"，字典把交流定義為交換信息。InterculturalCommunicationreferstotheexchangeofinformationbetweenpeoplefromdifferentcultures.跨文化交際是指來自不同文化的人之間的信息交流。Astheveryphrasesuggests,InterculturalCommunicationemphasizescross-culturalcompetenceratherthanlanguageonly.正如這句話所暗示的，跨文化交際強調的是跨文化能力，而不僅僅是語言。1.2whatmakesICacommonphenomenon:newtechnology,innovativecommunicationsystem,globalizationoftheeconomy,changesinimmigrationpatterns新技術、創新的通訊系統、經濟全球化、移民模式的變化ThedefinitionofglobalizationGlobalizationistheprocessbywhichregionaleconomies,societies,andcultureshavebecomeintegratedthroughcommunication,transportation,andtradebetweennations.全球化是區域經濟、社會和文化通過國家之間的交流、運輸和貿易而變得一體化的過程。Itisasocial,cultural,political,andlegalphenomenon.它是一種社會、文化、政治和法律現象BlocksinIC<1>AssumptionofSimilarities<1>相似性假設Manypeopleassumetherearesufficientsimilaritiesamongpeoplesoftheworldtomakecommunicationeasy.Theyexpectthatsimplybeinghumanandhavingcommonrequirementsoffood,shelter,security,andsoonmakeseveryonealike.許多人認為世界上的民族之間有足夠的相似之處使交流變得容易。他們期望，僅僅是作為人類，擁有共同的食物、住所、安全等需求，就能讓每個人都一樣。Unfortunately,theyoverlookthefactthattheformsofadaptationtothesecommonneedsandvalues,beliefs,andattitudesarevastlydifferentfromculturetoculture.不幸的是，他們忽視了一個事實，即不同文化對這些共同需求、價值觀、信仰和態度的適應形式是巨大不同的。Thebiologicalcommonalitiesarenotmuchhelpwhenitcomestocommunication,whereweneedtoexchangeideasandinformation,findwaystoliveandworktogether.當我們需要交流思想和信息，找到共同生活和工作的方式時，生物上的共性并沒有多大幫助<2>Languagedifferences<2>語言差異Vocabulary,syntax,idioms,slang,dialects,andsoonallcausedifficulty.詞匯、句法、成語、俚語、方言等都造成困難。Wordmeaning:somepeoplewillclingtojustonemeaningofawordorphraseinthenewlanguage,regardlessofconnotationorcontext.詞義:有些人只會執著于新語言中一個詞或短語的一個意思，而不考慮其內涵或上下文。<3>Nonverbalmisinterpretations<3>非語言的誤解Learningtheforeignlanguageisactuallyonlythebeginningoflearningaculture.學習外語實際上只是學習一種文化的開始。Themisinterpretationofnonverbalsymbols-suchasgestures,postures—isacommunicationbarrier.Butitispossibletolearnthemeaningsoftheseobservablemessages.對非語言符號(如手勢、姿勢)的誤解是一種溝通障礙。但是，了解這些可觀察信息的含義是可能的。Whatismoredifficulttounderstandarethelessobviousunspokencodesofthecultures,suchasthehandlingoftimeandspatialrelationshipsandthesubtlesignsofrespect.更難以理解的是這些文化中不太明顯的潛規則，比如對時間和空間關系的處理，以及微妙的尊重符號。<4>Preconceptionsandstereotypes4>偏見和刻板印象Astereotypeisafixedgeneralimageorsetofcharacteristicsthatpeoplebelieverepresentaparticulartypeofpersonorthing.刻板印象是人們認為代表某一特定類型的人或事物的固定的總體形象或一系列特征。例:日語:“不可思議的”“(持續的，似乎不恰當的微笑)”阿拉伯人:“易燃物”(導致美國學生與中東聚集保持距離)。墨西哥:“討價還價”(可能不公平地將M專業學生的猶豫或要求解讀為獲得優惠待遇的舉動。)e.g.Japanese:"inscrutable"”(constantandseeminglyinappropriatesmile)Arabs:“inflammable"(causeU.S.studentstokeepadistancefromtheMiddleEastgathers).Mexico:"bargain"(mayunfairlyinterpretahesitationorrequestfromanMstudentasamovetogetpreferentialtreatment.Stereotypesareover-generalized,secondhandbeliefsfromwhichwemakesenseoutofwhatgoesonaroundus,whetherornottheyareaccurateorfitthecircumstances.刻板印象是一種過于一般化的、二手的信念，我們通過它來理解周圍發生的事情，不管它們是否準確或符合環境。Inaforeignlandtheiruseincreasesourfeelingofsecurity.在異國他鄉，使用它們會增加我們的安全感。Butstereotypesareblocksforcommunicatorsbecausetheyinterferewithobjectiveviewingofotherpeople.但刻板印象對溝通者來說是障礙，因為它們妨礙了人們客觀地看待他人。Stereotypesarenoteasytoovercomebecausetheyarefirmlyestablishedasmythsbyone'sowncultureandprejudices.刻板印象是不容易克服的，因為它們被一個人自己的文化和偏見牢固地確立為神話.<5>Tendencytoevaluate<5>評價的傾向Thefifthblocktounderstandingbetweenpersonsofdifferingculturesisthetendencytoevaluate,toapproveordisapprove,thestatementsandactionsoftheotherperson.不同文化背景的人之間相互理解的第五大障礙是人們傾向于評價、贊同或不贊同他人的言論和行為。Ratherthantrytocomprehendthoughtsandfeelingsoftheother,weassumeourowncultureorwayoflifeisthemostnatural.Thisbiaspreventstheopen-mindednessneededtoexamineattitudesandbehaviorsfromtheother'spointofview.我們認為自己的文化或生活方式是最自然的，而不是試圖去理解別人的思想和感情。這種偏見阻礙了從他人的角度來審視態度和行為所需要的開放心態。Themiscommunicationcausedbyimmediateevaluationisdeepenedwhenfeelingsandemotionsareinvolved.當感情和情緒牽涉其中時，由即時評價引起的誤解就會加深。<6>Highanxiety<6>高焦慮Highanxietyortension，alsoknownasstress,iscommoninCross-culturalexperiencesduetothenumberofuncertaintiespresent.高度焦慮或緊張，也被稱為壓力，是常見的跨文化經驗，因為存在的不確定性。Moderatetensionandpositiveattitudesprepareonetomeetchallengeswithenergy-Toomuchanxietyortension,whichoftencomesintheformofdefenses,withdrawal,orhostility,requiressomeformofrelief.適度的緊張和積極的態度使一個人準備以能量迎接挑戰。太多的焦慮或緊張，通常以防御、退縮或敵意的形式出現，需要某種形式的緩解。Anxiousfeelingsusuallypermeatebothpartiesinaninterculturaldialogue.Thehostcannotmaintainthenormalflowofinteraction;silencesaretoolongortooshort;andsomeothernormsmaybeviolated.在跨文化對話中，焦慮情緒通常滲透到雙方。主持人不能維持正常的互動流程;沉默過長或過短;還有一些其他的規范可能會被違反。Howtoovercomethesixblocks-studyotherlanguages-moreattentiontosituationaldetails-investigativeapproachratherthanstereotypes-exposeourselvestodifferences-learntolowertensionlevel-anxietymanagement研究其他語言、多注意情境細節、研究方法而不是刻板印象、讓我們接觸不同、學會降低緊張水平、焦慮管理Casestudy1p23Unit2thedefinitionofculture1.1VariousDefinitionsofCulture文化這個詞有許多含義。Thewordculturehasnumerousmeanings.Itissaidthattherearemorethan150definitionsaboutculture.據說關于文化有150多種定義Culturewastreatedearlierasacomplexwholeofoursocialtraditionsandasaprerequisitionforustobeamemberofthesociety.文化在早期被視為我們社會傳統的一個復雜的整體，是我們成為社會一員的先決條件。Culturecanbeasetoffundamentalideas,practices,andexperiencesofagroupofpeople,whicharetransmittedfromgenerationtogenerationthroughalearningprocess.文化可以是一群人的基本思想、實踐和經驗的集合，通過學習的過程代代相傳。Culturemayaswellreferstobeliefs,norms,andattitudesthatareusedtoguideourbehaviorsandsolvehumanproblem.文化也可能是指用來指導我們的行為和解決人類問題的信念、規范和態度。1.2CultureasaWaytoSatisfyHumanNeeds文化是滿足人類需求的一種方式Maslow'sHierarchyofNeedsisatheoryinpsychology,proposedbyAbrahamMaslowinhis1948paperATheoryofHumanMotivation.馬斯洛需求層次理論是亞伯拉罕·馬斯洛在1948年的論文《人類動機理論》中提出的一種心理學理論。1.3culturalasaniceberg【howdouunderstand?】1/10isabovethewater——overt/surfaceculturecanbeseen9/10isbelowthewater——deepcultureoutofawarenessAbovewater:whattoeatandhowtoeathowtokeephealthyhowtoraisechildrenhowtoparticipateinceremonieshowtointroduceandgreetpeopleBelowwater:whatisgoodorbadwhatisrightorwrongwhatisbeautifulanduglywhatiscleanordirtyhowisanindividualrelatedtoothersCulture的特性1.4CharacteristicsofCulture(1)Cultureisholistic.(1)文化是整體的。Thischaracteristicunderscoresthecomplexnatureofculture.Asaholisticsystem,aneducationsystem,areligioussystem,anassociationsystem,apoliticalsystem,andsoon,thevariousaspectsofculturearecloselyinterrelated.Anychangeinasubsystemwillaffectthewholesystem.這一特點突出了文化的復雜性。作為一個整體系統，一個教育系統，一個宗教系統，一個社團系統，一個政治系統，等等，文化的各個方面是密切相關的。一個子系統的任何變化都會影響整個系統。E.G.,theAmericanCivilRightsMovementalteredAmericanattitude,values,andbehaviors.美國民權運動改變了美國人的態度、價值觀和行為。(2)Cultureisacquired.后天形成Webegintoconsciouslyandunconsciouslylearnourcultureinourearlylifethroughtheprocessofsocializationorenculturation.Interactionwithfamilymembersandfriendsisthemostcommonwayforustolearnourculture.Othersourcesforlearningourcultureareschools,churches,media,folktales,andart.我們開始有意識和無意識地學習我們的文化在我們的早期生活通過社會化或文化的過程。與家人和朋友的互動是我們學習文化最常見的方式。學習我們的文化的其他來源是學校、教堂、媒體、民間故事和藝術。(3)Cultureischanging.Culturesareconstantlychangingovertime.Someculturesaremoreopenandacceptingchange,otherstendtoresistit.Cultureschangeintheprocessoftransmissionfromgenerationtogeneration,grouptogroup,andplacetoplace.e.g.China'sOpiumWarbroughtgreatsocialandculturalchanges.文化是隨著時間不斷變化的。有些文化更開放，更能接受改變，有些則傾向于抵制改變。文化在代代相傳、群體傳承、地域傳承的過程中不斷變化。如，鴉片戰爭給中國帶來了巨大的社會和文化變化。(4)Cultureispervasive.(4)文化無處不在。Liketheairwebreathe,culturepenetratesintoeveryaspectofourlifeandinfluencesthewaywethink,wetalk,andwebehave.Culturecombinesvisibleandinvisiblethingsaroundus.Cultureisthesumtotalofhumansocietyanditsmeanings.就像我們呼吸的空氣一樣，文化滲透到我們生活的方方面面，影響著我們的思維方式、說話方式和行為方式。文化結合了我們周圍有形和無形的事物。文化是人類社會及其意義的總和。FillintaskNonverballanguagemovementmultiplyrevealingtonelimitdistinctionfurtherremarkcontactgestureHowdowecommunicate?Thefirstanswerthatislikelytocometomostpeople'smindsisthrough(1)_______:wespeak,welisten,weread,wewrite.Whenwethink(2)______.webecomeincreasinglyawarethatwealsocommunicatein(3)_____ways,throughgesturesandbody(4)_______.Thesignalsgivenbyour"bodylanguageareoftenmore(5)________thanthewordsweuse.Mostofuswillhavehadtheexperienceofsomeonesayingsomethingtous-makingaflattering(6)______,forinstance—thatwefeltwasinsincere.Whydidwefeelthat?Maybeitwasthe(7)_____inwhichitwassaid,orsomethingintheperson'smovementoreye(8)______withus.Whenweturntocommunicationprocessesacrosscultures,thecomplexitiesandcomplications(9)______.languageisagainthemostobviousexample.IfyouspeakonlyEnglishandthepersonyoutrytotalktospeakonlyJapanese,communicationwillbe(10)____——thoughyouwill,ifyoubothreallytry,beabletounderstandeachothertosomeextentbymeansof(11)_______.Evenwithspeakersofthesamelanguage,problemsmaybetheresultofintraculturaldifferences,thatis,(12)_____betweensubgroupswithaculture.DefinitionofcommunicationComponentofcommunication2.2ComponentsofCommunication<1>Context:背景:·Physicalsetting：locations、theseatingarrangementslighting、thetimeofday、thedistancebetweencommunicators·物理設置:位置、座位安排、照明、時間、通信器之間的距離·Historicalcontext：previouscommunicationevents·歷史語境:之前的溝通事件·Psychologicalcontext：themannerofperceivingthemselvesandothers·心理情境:感知自己和他人的方式·Culturalcontext：communicationnorms·文化語境:溝通規范<2>Participants:<2>參與者:·Rolesofsendersandreceivers：sendersformmessages--encodingreceiversprocessthemessagesandreacttothem—decoding·發送方和接收者的角色:1.發件人形成消息——編碼2.接收者處理消息并對其作出反應——解碼·Variablesaffectingparticipantsrelationships:familiarorunfamiliargender:malesorfemalesculture:fromthesamecultureorfromdifferentcultures·變量影響參與者1.關系:熟悉或不熟悉2.性別:男性或女性3.文化:來自同一文化或來自不同文化<3>Messages:·Meaningsthemeaningsmaynotbetransferredsuccessfully·Symbolswordschosenfacialexpressions,gesturestoneofvoice·EncodingandDecodingmessageencodedmaynotbedecodedasintendedcultureandnonverbalfactors<4>Channelssound,sight,smell,taste,touchthemorechannelsused,themoresuccessfulthecommunication<5>Noise:·Externalnoisestimuliinthesurroundingthatdistractattention·Internalnoiseinterferingthoughtsandfeelingsinsideacommunicator·Semanticnoisee.g.inappropriatechoiceofwords<6>Feedback:VerbalresponseNonverbalresponseCase1p61用5分析(whythecommunicationfailed?)Unit3cultureandavaluesCommonhumanproblems人類的基本5個問題TheKluckhohnsandStrodtbeck'sfivebasicquestionsWhatisthecharacterofinnatehumannature?=HumannatureorientationWhatistherelationofmantoNature?=Man-natureorientationWhatisthetimesenseofhumanlife?=TimeorientationWhatisthemodeofhumanactivity?=ActivityorientationWhatisthemodeofhumanrelationships?=SocialorientationBasicvaluesTherangeofalternativesolutionstoaculture'sproblemsislimited.Culturesmustselecttheirsolutionsfromarangeofalternatives--HumanBasicValues.****HumanNature【BasicallyEvil——MixtureofGoodandEvil——BasicallyGood】RelationofMantoNature【MansubjugatedbyNature——ManinHarmonywithNature——ManbeingtheMasterofNature】SenseofTime【Past——Present——Future】Activity【Being(whoyouare)——Growing(selfdevelopment)——Doing(whatyoudo)】SocialRelationship【Authoritarian——Group-Oriented——Individualistic】民族文化的劃分【名詞解釋】2.3Hofstede'sDimensionsofNationalCultures(1)Powerdistanceindex(PDI):“Powerdistanceistheextenttowhichthelesspowerfulmembersoforganizationsandinstitutions(likethefamily)acceptandexpectthatpowerisdistributedunequally.”"Culturesthatendorselowpowerdistance:expectandacceptpowerrelationsthataremoredemocratic.Peoplerelatetooneanothermoreasequalsregardlessofformalpositions.Subordinatesaremorecomfortablewiththoseinpowerandmaycritiquethedecisionsmadebythem.、Inhighpowerdistancecountries,lesspowerfulpeopleacceptpowerrelationsthataremoreautocratic.Subordinatesacknowledgethepowerofotherssimplybasedonwheretheyaresituatedincertainformal,hierarchicalpositions.Assuch,thePowerdistanceindex(PDI)doesnotreflectanobjectivedifferenceinpowerdistribution,butratherthewaypeopleperceivepowerdifferences.權力距離指數：權力距離是指組織和機構中權力較弱的成員(如家庭)對權力不平等的接受程度和期望程度。支持低權力距離的文化:期望和接受更民主的權力關系。人們之間的關系更多的是平等的，而不是正式的職位。下屬更喜歡那些有權力的人，可能會批評他們所做的決定。在高權力距離的國家，權力較小的人接受更專制的權力關系。下屬承認他人的權力僅僅是基于他們所處的正式的等級地位。因此，權力距離指數反映的不是權力分配的客觀差異，而是人們感知權力差異的方式。(2)Individualism(IDV)vs.Collectivism:個人主義(IDV)vs集體主義:“Thedegreetowhichindividualsareintegratedintogroups?.Inindividualisticsocieties,thestressisputonpersonalachievementsandindividualrights.Peopleareexpectedtostandupforthemselvesandtheirimmediatefamily,andtochoosetheirownaffiliations.Incontrast,incollectivistsocieties,individualsactasmembersofalife-longandcohesivegroup/organization(note:"Thewordcollectivisminthissensehasnopoliticalmeaning:itreferstothegroup,nottothestate"2).Peoplehavelargeextendedfamilies,whichareusedasaprotectioninexchangeforunquestioningloyalty.個人融入群體的程度?在個人主義的社會里，強調的是個人的成就和個人的權利。人們應該為自己和直系親屬挺身而出，選擇自己的歸屬。相比之下，在集體主義社會中，個人作為一個終身的、有凝聚力的群體/組織的成員(注:“這種意義上的集體主義一詞沒有政治意義:它指的是群體，而不是國家”。人們有大家庭，這是一種保護，以換取絕對的忠誠。(3)UncertaintyAvoidanceIndex(UAI):不確定性規避指數(UAI):"asociety'stoleranceforuncertaintyandambiguity'.Itreflectstheextenttowhichmembersofasocietyattempttocopewithanxietybyminimizinguncertainty.Peopleincultureswithhighuncertaintyavoidancetrytominimizetheoccurrenceofunknownandunusualcircumstances.Theyproceedwithchangesstepbystepbyplanningandbyimplementingrules,lawsandregulations.Incontrast,lowuncertaintyavoidanceculturesacceptandfeelcomfortableinunstructuredsituationsorchangeableenvironmentsandtrytohaveasfewrulesaspossible.Peopleintheseculturestendtobemoretolerantofchange.“一個社會對不確定性和模糊性的容忍度”。它反映了社會成員試圖通過減少不確定性來應對焦慮的程度。在高不確定性規避文化中，人們盡量減少未知和不尋常情況的發生。他們通過規劃和實施規則、法律和規章逐步進行變革。相比之下，低不確定性規避文化接受并適應無組織的情況或多變的環境，并試圖有盡可能少的規則。生活在這些文化中的人往往對變化更寬容。(4)Masculinity(MAS)vs.Femininity:“Thedistributionofemotionalrolesbetweenthegenders".Masculinecultures'valuesincludecompetitiveness,assertiveness,materialism,ambition,andpower;whereasfeminineculturesplacemorevalueonrelationshipsandqualityoflife.Inmasculinecultures,thedifferencesbetweengenderrolesaremoredramaticandlessfluidthaninfemininecultureswheremenandwomenhavethesamevaluesemphasizingmodestyandcaring.ThisdimensionisoftenrenamedQuantityofLifevs.QualityofLife.男性與女性:情感角色在性別間的分配”。男性文化的價值觀包括競爭性、果敢、物質主義、野心和權力;而女性文化更重視人際關系和生活質量。在男性文化中，性別角色之間的差異比在女性文化中更明顯，也更不穩定，在女性文化中，男女具有強調謙虛和關愛的相同價值觀。這一維度通常被重新命名為“生命的數量”vs“生命的質量”。(5)Longtermorientation(LTO)vs.Shorttermorientation:Firstcalled"Confuciandynamism",itdescribessocieties’timehorizon.Longtermorientedsocietiesattachmoreimportancetothefuture.Theyfostervaluesorientedtowardsrewards,includingpersistence,savingandcapacityforadaptation.Inshorttermorientedsocieties,valuespromotedarerelatedtothepastandthepresent,includingsteadiness,respectfortradition,preservationofone'sface,andfulfillingsocialobligations.長期導向(LTO)與短期導向:最初被稱為“儒家物力論”，它描述了社會的時間跨度。長期導向的社會更加重視未來。它們培養以回報為導向的價值觀，包括堅持、儲蓄和適應能力。在短期導向的社會中，所提倡的價值觀與過去和現在有關，包括穩定、尊重傳統、保持臉面和履行社會義務。High、lowcontextculture【whatis...】EdwardHall'sTheoryonHighandLowContextCultures***Edward.T.Hall,whosewritingsabouttherelationshipbetweencultureandcommunicationarewellknown,classifiesculturesbytheamountofinformationimpliedbythecontextofthecommunicationitself,regardlessofthespecificwordsthatarespoken.Hallhasobservedthatmeaningandcontextareboundupwitheachother.Whileaverbalcodecanbeanalyzedonsomelevelsindependentofcontext,inreallifethecode,thecontext,andthemeaningcanonlybeseenasdifferentaspectsofasingleevent.Hallclaimsthathumaninteraction,onthebroadlevel,canbedividedintohigh-contextandlow-contextcommunicationsystems.愛德華·霍爾的高低語境文化理論***T.Hall關于文化與交際關系的著作廣為人知，他根據交際語境本身所隱含的信息量對文化進行了分類，而不考慮所使用的具體詞匯。霍爾觀察到，意義和語境是相互聯系的。雖然語言代碼可以在某些層面上獨立于語境進行分析，但在現實生活中，代碼、語境和意義只能被視為單個事件的不同方面。霍爾認為，從廣義上講，人類互動可以分為高語境和低語境兩種交流系統。Ingeneral,low-contextcommunicationreferstocommunicationpatternsofdirectverbalmode.Inlow-contextcommunication,thespeakerisexpectedtoberesponsibleforsendingclear,persuasivemessagethatthelistenercandecodeeasily.Whilehigh-contextcommunicationreferstocommunicationpatternsofindirectverbalmode.Inhigh-contextcommunication,thelistenerorinterpreterofthemessageisexpectedto"readbetweenthelines,"toaccuratelyinfertheimplicitintentoftheverbalmessage,andtoobservethenonverbalhintsthataccompanyandenhancetheverbalmessage.一般來說，低語境交際是指直接言語交際模式。在低語境交際中，講話者應該負責傳達清晰、有說服力的信息，讓聽者容易理解。高語境交際指的是間接言語交際模式。在高語境交際中，信息的聽者或解釋者被期望“從字里行間閱讀”，以準確地推斷言語信息的隱含意圖，并觀察伴隨和加強言語信息的非言語暗示。Alow-context(LC)communicationisoneinwhichthemassoftheinformationisvestedintheexplicitcode,andthecontextorsituationplaysaminimalrole.Whenweuselow-contextcommunicationwestresstheimportanceofexplicitverbalmessagestoconveypersonalthoughts,opinions,andfeelings.Ahigh-context(HC)communicationisoneinwhichmostoftheinformationiseitherwithinthecontextorinternalizedintheperson,whileverylittleisinthecodedandexplicitpartofthemessage.Whenweusehigh-contextcommunicationwestresstheimportanceofmultilayeredcontexts(e.g.，historicalcontext,socialnorms,roles，situationalandrelationalcontexts)thatframetheinteractionencounter.在低語境(LC)通信中，大量的信息都歸屬于顯式代碼，而上下文或情境只起很小的作用。當我們使用低語境溝通時，我們強調明確的語言信息的重要性來傳達個人的想法、意見和感受。高上下文(HC)通信是這樣一種通信，其中大部分信息要么在上下文中，要么在人的內部，而很少信息在消息的編碼和顯式部分中。當我們使用高語境交流時，我們會強調多層語境的重要性。Case10p97Listentoastoryincase10anddiscussthefollowingquestions.41.WhydidtheJapanesegeneralmanagerfeelextremelysurprisedwhenheheardthatMr.LegrandhaddecidednottobeawayfromFrance?Whatwouldhethinkofhim?2.WhatwouldbeyourfirstchoiceifyouhadbeeninMr.Legrand'sposition?Unit4簡答：relationbetweenculture&languagewecansummarizetherelationshipbetweencultureandlanguageasthefollowing:languageisakeycomponentofculture.Itistheprimarymediumfortransmittingculture.Withoutlanguage,culturewouldnotbepossible.Childrenleaningtheirnativelanguageareleaningtheirownculture;learningasecondlanguagealsoinvolveslearningasecondculturetosomedegrees.Ontheotherhand,languageisinfluencedandshapedbyculture.Itreflectsculture.Culturaldifferencesarethemostseriousareascausingmisunderstanding,unpleasantnessandevenconflictincross-culturalcommunication.(1)語言是文化的重要組成部分。它是傳播文化的主要媒介。沒有語言，就不可能有文化。孩子學習母語就是學習自己的文化;在某種程度上，學習第二語言也包括學習第二文化。(2)另一方面，語言受到文化的影響和塑造。它反映了文化。在跨文化交際中，文化差異是造成誤解、不愉快甚至沖突的最嚴重的領域。Sapir-whorfhypothesisTheSapir-Whorfhypothesisisthelinguistictheorythatthesemanticstructureofalanguageshapesorlimitsthewaysinwhichaspeakerformsconceptionsoftheworld.Itcameaboutin1929.ThetheoryisnamedaftertheAmericananthropologicallinguistEdwardSapir(1884-1939)andhisstudentBenjaminWhorf(1897-1941).Itisalsoknownasthetheoryoflinguisticrelativity,linguisticrelativism,linguisticdeterminism.Sapir-Whorf假設是一種語言理論，認為語言的語義結構會影響或限制說話人對世界的看法。它出現于1929年。該理論以美國人類學語言學家愛德華·薩皮爾(EdwardSapir,1884-1939)和他的學生本杰明·沃爾夫(BenjaminWhorf,1897-1941)的名字命名。它又被稱為語言相對論、語言相對論、語言決定論。Neo-WhorfianismisessentiallyaweakerversionoftheSapir-Whorfhypothesisandsaysthatlanguageinfluencesaspeaker'sviewoftheworldbutdoesnotinescapablydetermineit.新沃爾夫主義本質上是Sapir-Whorf假說的一個弱化版本，它認為語言會影響說話者的世界觀，但并不是不可避免地決定世界觀。思考題therelationbetweenlanguage,cultureandthoughtsCase:(1)TheJapaneselanguagevariessubstantiallyindifferentsocialsituations.Separatevocabulariesareusedforaddressingsuperiors(上級),peers,andinferiors(下級).Inaddition,wordsthatmenandwomenusedifferinJapanese.MaledominanceisrevealedintheSpanishlanguagethroughtheuseofgenderednounsandpronouns.Agroupofmen,forinstance,wouldbereferredtoasellos,andagroupofwomenasellas,theoendingbeingmasculineandtheaendingbeingfeminine.Butifagroupcontainsseveralmenandonewoman,itiscalledellos,usingthemasculinegender;ifagroupcontainsseveralwomenandoneman,thegroupisstillcalledellos.Agroupofgirlsiscalled?groupofgirlsthatincludesasingleboyiscalledninos.Unit5Differentorientationofcommunicationpatterns【簡答】EastAsianorientation1.Processorientation——communicationisperceivedasaprocessofinfiniteinterpretation;2.Differentiatedlinguisticcodes——differentlinguisticcodesareuseddependinguponpersonsinvolvedandsituations;3.Indirectcommunicationemphasis—theuseofindirectcommunicationisprevalentandacceptedasnormative;4.Receivercentered-meaningisintheinterpretation.Emphasisisonlistening,sensitivity,andremovalofpreconception.東亞方向1.過程導向——溝通被認為是一個無限解釋的過程;2.不同的語言代碼——不同的語言代碼根據不同的人和情況使用;3.間接溝通的重要性-間接溝通的使用是普遍的和公認的規范;4.以接受者為中心的意義存在于解釋中。重點是傾聽、敏感和消除偏見。NorthAmericanorientation1.Communicationisperceivedasthetransferenceofmessages2.Lessdifferentiatedlinguisticcodes——linguisticcodesarenotasextensivelydifferentiatedasEastAsia3.Directcommunicationemphasis——directcommunicationisthenormdespitetheextensiveuseofindirectcommunication4.Sendercentered——meaningisinthemessagecreatedbythesender.Emphasisisonhowtoformulatethebestmessage,howtoimprovesourcecredibilityanddeliveryskills.北美方向1.溝通被認為是信息的傳遞2.差異較小的語言代碼——語言代碼的差異不像東亞那樣廣泛3.強調直接溝通——盡管廣泛使用間接溝通，直接溝通仍是規范4.以發送者為中心——意思是在發送者創建的消息中。重點是如何制定最好的信息，如何提高來源的可信度和傳遞技巧。Culturaldifferencesincommunicationpatterns文化交際模式【4個，基本概念】【highinvolvement/consideration詞匯解析】Highinvolvementvs.highconsideratenessHighinvolvementstyle：talkmore;interruptmore;expecttobeinterrupted;talkmoreloudlyattimes;e.talkmorequickly.Eg.Italian：Aconversationisn'tfununlessitbecomesheated.Highconsiderationstyle：speakoneatatime;usepolitelisteningsounds;refrainfrominterrupting;giveplentyofpositiveandrespectfulresponses.Eg.American：Well,everyoneisentitledtoanopinion.Directstylevs.IndirectstyleThetoneofvoice,thespeaker'sintention,andtheverbalcontentreflectourwayofspeaking,ourverbalstyle,whichinturnreflectsourculturalandpersonalvaluesandsentiments.Verbalstyleframes"how"amessageshouldbeinterpreted.Thedirect-indirectverbalinteractiondimensioncanbethoughtofasacontinuum.Individualsinallculturesusethegradationsofalltheseverbalstyles,dependingonroleidentities,interactiongoals,andsituations.However,inindividualisticcultures,peopletendtoencountermoresituationsthatemphasizedirecttalk,person-orientedverbalinteraction,verbalself-enhancement,andtalkativeness.Incontrast,incollectivisticcultures,peopletendtoencountermoresituationsthatemphasizeindirecttalk,status-orientedverbalinteraction,verbalself-effacement,andsilence.Thedirectandindirectstylesdifferintheextenttowhichcommunicatorsrevealtheirintentionsthroughtheirtoneofvoiceandthestraightforwardnessoftheircontentmessage.Inthedirectverbalstyle,statementsclearlyrevealthespeaker'sintentionsandareexpressedinastraighttoneofvoice.Intheindirectverbalstyle,ontheotherhand,verbalstatementstendtoconcealthespeaker'sactualintentionsandarecarriedoutwithmoresubtletoneofvoice.Forexample,theoverallU.S.Americanverbalstyleoftencallsforclearanddirectcommunication.Phrasessuchas"saywhatyou