1、語言學知識點 Mr.Potato第1頁I 語言學導論 II 語言學主要分支學科 III 語言學流派和理論 第2頁I 語言學導論 1. design feature of language（語言定義特征） 2. Language Families (世界語言分類) 3. important distinctions in linguistics (語言學研究中幾對主要概念) 4. scope of linguistics (語言學研究范圍)第3頁LOREM IPSUM DOLOR1. design feature of language（語言定義特征) defining properties o

2、f human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication 第4頁1. design feature of language語言定義特征1)Arbitrariness（任意性）2)Duality(二層性)3)Creativity/Productivity(創造性)4)Displacement（移位性）5)Cultural Transmission(文化傳遞性) 第5頁1）Arbitrariness(任意性): 定義：the forms of linguistic signs bear no natur

3、al relationship to their meaning. 舉例：書, book, livre喜歡，like，aimerLOREM IPSUM DOLOR第6頁LOREM IPSUM DOLOR2）Duality（二層性）: 定義：the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level.舉例： Sounds syllables words phrases clauses sen

4、tences texts/discourses第7頁LOREM IPSUM DOLOR3） Creativity/Productivity（創造性）: 定義：Language can be used to create new meanings because of its duality 舉例1：/k/ ,/a:/, /p/- carp or park舉例2：England, defeated, FranceEngland defeated France.France defeated England.第8頁4）Displacement（替換性）: 定義：Human languages en

5、able their users to symbolize something which are not present at the moment of communication. 第9頁5） Cultural Transmission（文化傳遞性）: 定義：language is passed on from generation to generation through teaching and learning rather than instinct. 反例：印度狼孩LOREM IPSUM DOLOR第10頁3. Design feature 定義特征1)Arbitrarine

6、ss（任意性）2)Duality(二層性)3)Creativity/Productivity(創造性)4)Displacement（移位性）5)Cultural Transmission(文化傳遞性) 怎樣記憶: 五性，創意遺傳第11頁LOREM IPSUM DOLOR4. Important Distinctions in Linguistics (語言學研究中幾對主要概念)1) descriptive & prescriptive 2) synchronic & diachronic3) langue & parole4) competence & performance第12頁LOREM

7、 IPSUM DOLOR1) Descriptive （描述性） vs. Prescriptive （要求性） Descriptive: describing how things are.prescriptive: prescribing how things ought to be第13頁Important Distinctions in Linguistics舉例：Dont say X.People dont say X.The first is a prescriptive command, while the second is a descriptive statement.第14

8、頁LOREM IPSUM DOLOR2). Synchronic（共時性） vs. Diachronic （歷時性）synchronic: takes a fixed instant as its point of observation. diachronic: the study of a language through the course of its history. 第15頁LOREM IPSUM DOLOR舉例：研究18英語發音 Synchronic studies (共時性研究)研究1800-1900法語語法改變Diachronic studies (歷時研究)第16頁2.

9、世界語言分類Language family 語系language group 語族Language branch 語支印歐語系,漢藏語系，南島語系，阿爾泰語系，南亞語系印歐語系下的日耳曼語族，羅曼語族，凱爾特語族, 斯拉夫語族，伊朗印度語族日耳曼語族下分東日耳曼語支，西日耳曼支，北日耳曼語支第17頁2. 世界語言分類Language family 語系language group 語族Language branch 語支印歐語系,漢藏語系，南島語系，阿爾泰語系，南亞語系印歐語系下的日耳曼語族，羅曼語族，凱爾特語族, 斯拉夫語族，伊朗印度語族日耳曼語族下分西日耳曼支，東日耳曼語支，北日耳曼語支第

10、18頁Indo-European language family印歐語系Germanic group 日耳曼語族West Branch西日耳曼語支英語，德語North Branch瑞典語，丹麥語-Celtic group凱爾特語族North Celtic group北凱爾特語支愛爾蘭語，蓋爾語South Celtic group南凱爾特語支威爾士語Roman group羅曼語族West Roman Group西羅曼語支法語，西班牙語等東支羅馬尼亞語Slavic group斯拉夫語族West Slavic group斯拉夫語西支波蘭語，捷克語東支俄語第19頁3). langue（語言） & pa

11、role （言語）Theorist：Saussure（索緒爾）, father of modern linguistics langue: abstract linguistic systemparole: actual realization of langue Important Distinctions in Linguistics 第20頁Important Distinctions in Linguistics舉例：漢語系統langue每個中國人在不一樣詳細場景中說出詳細話語parole第21頁Important Distinctions in Linguistics4) Compe

12、tence（語言能力） and performance （語言利用）theorist: Chomsky(喬姆斯基) competence: users knowledge of rules about the linguistic system.performance: the actual realization of this knowledge in concrete situations.第22頁LOREM IPSUM DOLOR5. Scope of Linguistics (語言學研究范圍)1）按研究內容來分2）按研究導向來分第23頁語言學分類-按研究內容分LinguisticsM

13、icro-linguistics語言內部問題Macro-linguistics語言與外部世界關系問題第24頁語言學分類-按研究內容分Micro- LinguisticssoundPhonetics(語音學)Phonology（音系學）wordMorphology（形態學）sentenceSyntax（句法學）meaningSemantics（語義學）Pragmatics(語用學)第25頁Macro-linguisticsLanguage & SocietySociolinguistics社會語言學Language & MindPsycholinguistics心理語言學Language & C

14、ultureanthropological linguistics人類語言學Language & ComputerComputational Linguistics計算機語言學第26頁語言學分類-按研究導向分Linguistics TheoreticalLinguisticsLinguistic nature, universal rulesApplied Linguisticslanguage acquisition, teaching, assessment第27頁語言學分類-按研究內容分Micro- LinguisticssoundPhonetics(語音學)Phonology（音系學）

15、wordMorphology（形態學）sentenceSyntax（句法學）meaningSemantics（語義學）Pragmatics(語用學)第28頁語言學分類-按研究內容分Micro- LinguisticssoundPhonetics(語音學)Phonology（音系學）wordMorphology（形態學）sentenceSyntax（句法學）meaningSemantics（語義學）Pragmatics(語用學)第29頁LOREM IPSUM DOLOR考點: 1.語音學(phonetics)和音系學(phonology)定義和區分2.語音學主要概念: 清音和濁音3.音系學主要概

16、念: 音子，音位, 超音段特征 第30頁LOREM IPSUM DOLORPhonetics studies all speech sounds in human languages: how they are produced, transmitted and how they are received. Phonology: aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communica

17、tion. 區分: meaning(是否研究和表示意義相關語音）第31頁LOREM IPSUM DOLOR舉例:too 和 tea 中 /t/發too中/t/時, 舌位更靠近口腔前部發tea中/t/時，舌位更靠近口腔后部語音學要研究這種/t/發音不一樣之處, 音系學不研究第32頁Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived. 第33頁語音學分類articulatory phonetics(發音語音學): speakers production acoustic phonetics（聲學語

18、音學）: transmissions mediumauditory phonetics(聽覺語音學): receivers reception 第34頁怎樣記憶phonetics和phonolgy區分:聯想: mathematics, physics, mechanics phonetics 語言學，-ics科學性更強 geology, sociology, astrology phonology 音系學，-ology人文性更強第35頁 Speech organs How speech sounds are made第36頁第37頁Position of the vocal folds(聲帶)

19、: voicing(濁音) and voiceless (清音)第38頁LOREM IPSUM DOLORVoiceless(清音)：vocal cords are drawn wide apart, letting the air stream go through without causing obstruction 清音舉例：p,s,tVoicing/Voiced（濁音）：vocal cords held together, letting the air stream vibrates 濁音: b,z,d第39頁LOREM IPSUM DOLORThe distinction bet

20、ween vowels and consonants lies in the obstruction of airstream.As there is no obstruction of air in the production of vowels, the description of the consonants and vowels cannot be done along the same lines.第40頁LOREM IPSUM DOLOR音系學定義：study of how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how th

21、ese sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. 音系學主要概念: phone音子，phoneme音位 (音系研究基本單位)supra-segmental features超音段特征第41頁LOREM IPSUM DOLORPhone(音子)：a phonetic unit; the speech sounds we hear and produce during communication are all phones 舉例: too 和 tea 中 /t/發too中/t/時, 舌位更靠近口腔前部發tea中/

22、t/時，舌位更靠近口腔后部所以too 和 tea 中 /t/兩個不一樣音子第42頁LOREM IPSUM DOLOR Phoneme(音位): phonological and abstract unit, a unit of distinctive value; the smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two words. 舉例： tea 和 sea, /t/和/s/是兩個不一樣音位morpheme第43頁LOREM IPSUM DOLORWhat is the point of departure of

23、phonology?A. phone B. sound C. voice D. phoneme 第44頁LOREM IPSUM DOLORWhat is the point of departure of phonology?A. phone B. sound C. voice D. phoneme(音位) 第45頁LOREM IPSUM DOLORWhat is the point of departure of phonetics?A. phone B. sound C. voice D. phoneme 第46頁LOREM IPSUM DOLORWhat is the point of

24、departure of phonetics?A. phone B. sound C. voice D. phoneme 第47頁Suprasegmental features (超音段特征)Suprasegmental features: phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments . The principal suprasegmentals are: 第48頁LOREM IPSUM DOLORSupra-segmental features (超音段特征)： stress （重音）舉例: perfect (ad

25、j) 和 perfect (v)tone (聲調)/pitch (音高): 定義: sound feature which are caused by the differing rate of vibration of the vocal folds.舉例: m媽, m麻, m馬， m罵比較：英語單詞，如me第49頁LOREM IPSUM DOLORintonation （語氣）：pitch, stress, and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation. 舉例: 第50頁 Morpho

26、logy 形態學1. 學科定義2. 語素定義和分類3. 詞分類（classification of words）第51頁形態學研究基本單位1. morpheme(語素）. The most basic element of meaning in language，an element that cannot be further divided into smaller units without altering its meaning.舉例：ball football balls第52頁Morpheme語素Free morpheme自由語素定義：constitute words by th

27、emselves舉例：girl, book, dogBound morpheme粘附語素Derivational morpheme派生語素定義：change lexical meaning舉例：Dis-, co-, -ful, -enInflectional morpheme屈折語素定義：change grammatical meaning舉例: -s, -ed, -ing,er, est定義: not occur by themselves 第53頁 Types of MorphemesFree morphemes vs. Bound morphemes（自由語素和黏著語素）: Free m

28、orphemes: those that may constitute words by themselves, eg boy, girl, table, nation.Bound morphemes: those that cannot occur alone, eg -s, -ed, dis-, un-.第54頁Types of Bound MorphemeInflectional morpheme (屈折語素)=inflectional affix(屈折詞綴)：change the grammatical meaning (number, aspect, case, tense) Der

29、ivational morpheme（派生語素）=inflectional affix (派生詞綴）: change the lexical meaning 第55頁dis+like+s derivational free inflectional morpheme 第56頁light+en+ed free derivational inflectional morpheme 第57頁LOREM IPSUM DOLORDerivational morpheme(改變詞義): 改變詞義：dis-, un-, multi-, micro-改變詞性：en-, -full, -mentInflecti

30、onal morpheme（改變語法含義）:改變名稱性，數，格：-ess, -s,改變動詞時, 態，體: -ing, -ed, 改變形容詞級：-er, -est第58頁詞分類-按構詞法分wordSimple word簡單詞Compound word合成詞Derivational word派生詞第59頁LOREM IPSUM DOLOR怎樣區分配生詞（derivational word）和 合成詞(compound word) : 拆開后看各個組成語素能否都單獨成詞，假如能夠，就是合成詞，假如不能就是派生詞。Businessman: business + manPlayboy: play + b

31、oy Mouthful: mouth + fulLighten: light + en第60頁詞分類-按詞義分wordGrammatical word 語法詞 （function word 功能詞）定義：表達語法意義，連接舉例：prep介詞，conj連詞，art冠詞，pronoun代詞Lexical word詞匯詞 （content word 實義詞）定義：表達實際意義（物質，動作和性質）的詞舉例：n名詞，v動詞，adj形容詞，adv副詞第61頁詞分類-按開放性分wordOpen class word開放詞類定義：不斷有新詞進入舉例：noun, adj, verb, advClosed-cla

32、ss word封閉詞類定義：基本沒有新詞進入舉例: preposition, conjunction, article, pronoun第62頁詞分類-按在句子主要性分詞類Major part of speechNoun名詞Verb動詞Adjective形容詞adverb副詞preposition介詞Minor part of speechArticle冠詞Conjunction連詞Auxiliary助動詞第63頁 分類方法 按構詞法分簡單詞: dislike, light派生詞: dislike, lighten合成詞: cat-like, light-weight按詞義分語法詞 : 冠,

33、介，代，連詞詞匯詞: 名，動，形，副按開放性分開放詞:名，動，形，副封閉詞:冠, 介，代，連詞按在句中主要性分主要詞類:名，動，形，副, 介次要詞類：冠，代，連詞第64頁考點1. 定義2. 句法范圍3. 句子類型 Syntax 句法第65頁LOREM IPSUM DOLOR1. Syntax定義：: studies internal structure of sentence and rules of sentence-formation第66頁LOREM IPSUM DOLORCategory(范圍): a group of linguistic items which fulfill th

34、e same or similar functions in a particular language such as sentence, a noun phrase or a verb (起相同作用一類語言單位)Syntactical category(句法范圍): a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in sentence-formation. （在句子組成中起相同作用一類語言單位）第67頁Syntactical category(句法范圍)Word-lexical categor

35、yPhrase-phrasal categoryClause-clausal categorySentence第68頁Lexical Category 詞法范圍=Parts of Speech 詞類Lexical categoryMajor part of speechNoun名詞Verb動詞Adjective形容詞adverb副詞preposition介詞Minor part of speechArticle冠詞Conjunction連詞Auxiliary助動詞第69頁 分類方法 按構詞法分簡單詞: dislike, light派生詞: dislike, lighten合成詞: cat-li

36、ke, light-weight按詞義分語法詞 : 冠, 介，代，連詞詞匯詞: 名，動，形，副按開放性分開放詞:名，動，形，副封閉詞:冠, 介，代，連詞按在句中主要性分主要詞類/范圍:名，動，形，副, 介次要詞類/范圍：冠，代，連詞第70頁 phrase specifier head complement a car five meters away 第71頁72Sentence Types(句子類型)simple Sentence complexnon-simple compound第72頁LOREM IPSUM DOLOR4. 句子分類：Simple sentence 簡單句Coordin

37、ate sentence 并列句Complex sentence 復雜句第73頁LOREM IPSUM DOLORsimple sentence 簡單句定義：also called independent clause, contains a subject and a verb, and it expresses a complete thought. 第74頁LOREM IPSUM DOLOR練習：Jim and Mike play football every afternoon. (simple sentence) Mary goes to the library and studie

38、s every day. (coordinate sentence)第75頁LOREM IPSUM DOLORcoordinate sentence并列句: contains two independent clauses joined by a coordinator(并列連詞) such as and, or, but etc. Coordinators are often preceded by a comma. 例句: I tried to speak Spanish, and my friend tried to speak English. Lily went to play fo

39、otball, but Maria went shopping.第76頁LOREM IPSUM DOLORYou have to do it one way or the other.Simple sentenceThe workers were cheerful, or at least they appeared to be cheerful.Coordinate sentence第77頁LOREM IPSUM DOLORcomplex sentence 定義：A complex sentence has an independent clause joined with one or m

40、ore dependent clauses by one or more subordinators(隸屬連詞) such as if, when, because, althoug. 第78頁LOREM IPSUM DOLORAs he is growing old, he seldom goes out.He is growing old, whereas he becomes healthier.怎樣區分并列和復雜句-看連詞表示關系 并列，選擇和轉折關系-并列句時間，條件，原因和讓步關系-復雜句 第79頁Semantics考點：1. 定義：study of meaning2. 兩種基本意

41、義：reference指稱和sense涵義3. 五種詞語語義關系第80頁Ludwig Wittgenstein: The meaning of a word is its use in the language. Meaning is studied by making detailed analyses of the way words and sentences are used in specific contexts.Reference（指稱）: how language refers to the real physical world (語言指代外部物質世界)Sense（涵義）:

42、inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is abstract and the meaning dictionary compilers are interested in. (語言形式內在意義) 第81頁 conceptsymbolizes refers tosymbol referent(word) stands for (object)第82頁 dogSense:a domesticated canine mammal Reference: 第83頁Synonymy 同義Synonymy 同義: sameness or similarity

43、 of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms. 第84頁同義分類舉例dialectical synonym地域同義詞：舉例: fall and autumn, flat and apartment stylistic synonym格調同義詞：舉例: cop and police, kid and offspringcollocational synonym搭配同義詞：舉例: accuse of, charge with, rebuke forSemantically different synonym語義稍有

44、不一樣同義詞: 舉例: surprise and astound, blame and rebuke第85頁Antonymy 反義Antonymy 反義: oppositeness of meaning. Words that are opposite in meaning are called antonyms. Antonymy 反義關系分類：gradable antonymy 等級反義complementary antonymy互補反義converse antonymy反向反義第86頁Gradable antonymy等級反義young -middle-aged- oldbig -mid

45、dle-sized- smallgood-average-bad第87頁 Complementary antonymy互補反義alive : deadmale : femalepresent : absentinnocent : guiltyodd : evenpass : failboy : girlhit : miss第88頁 Converse antonymy反向反義 buy : selllend : borrowgive : receiveparent : childhusband : wifeteacher : studentabove : belowbefore : afterho

46、st : guestemployer : employee第89頁 Hyponymy 上下義關系Hyponymy上下義: refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.Superordinate/hypernym上義詞: the more general termHyponym下義詞: the more specific term第90頁LOREM IPSUM DOLOR舉例:hypernym上義詞: animal Hyponym下義詞: bir

47、d, fish, tiger, cat怎樣記憶:hyper-向上 hype 炒作 hypo-向下 hypothesis 假設第91頁 Animalbird fish insect animal human animal tiger lion elephant .第92頁Polysemy 一詞多義Polysemy: the same one word has more than one meaning. Such a word is called polysemic word.舉例:Fish:1. 魚2. 魚肉3. 水生動物4. 打魚5. 尋找第93頁LOREM IPSUM DOLORHomon

48、ymy同音/同形異義詞 : words having different meanings have the same form, different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.Identical in sound: homophones 同音詞Identical in spelling: homograph 同形詞Identical in both: complete homonyms 同音同形詞第94頁LOREM IPSUM DOLORhomophones 同音詞：舉例: knight and night, p

49、iece and peace homograph 同形詞舉例: tear (v) and tear (n), lead (v) and lead (n)complete homonyms 同音同形詞: fast (adj) and fast (n) 第95頁LOREM IPSUM DOLOR怎樣區分同音同形和一詞多義現象: beauty, fish, ball, scalebeauty: 漂亮；美女fish: 魚；魚肉；水生動物；打魚；尋找ball: 球；舞會scale: 規模；魚鱗 看其多個意義之間是否相關聯，假如有就是一詞多義，沒有就是同音同形詞第96頁Pragmatics 語用學 考點:

50、定義和與語義學區分：study of meaning in context or in use言語行為理論（兩位理論家和三種行為）會話標準 第97頁2. Speech Act TheoryJohn Austin (1911-1960)How to Do Things with Words (1962)Main Idea: things can be done with words第98頁Constatives(敘事句) vs. performatives（施為句）Constatives（敘事句）: utterances which roughly serves to state a fact,

51、 report that something is the case, or describe what something is, eg: I go to the park every Sunday.I teach English. 第99頁LOREM IPSUM DOLORPerformatives（施為句）: utterances which are used to perform acts, do not describe or report anything at all; the uttering of the sentence is the doing of an action;

52、 they cannot be said to be true or false.Performative verbs: name, bet, etc.第100頁Three Speech Acts (三種言語行為)A locutionary act (言內行為): the act of uttering words, phrase, sentences. It is an act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology. An illocutionary act（言外行為）: an act o

53、f expression speakers intention; it is an act performed in saying something.A perlocutionary act（言后行為）: the act preformed by or as a result of saying, the effects on the hearer.第101頁三種話語行為-舉例老師對學生說: You have left the door open.Locutionary act(言內行為): the act of uttering the words of “you”, “have”, “l

54、eft”, “the”, “door”, “open”Illocutinary act(言外行為): the act of expressing the teachers intention of asking the student to close the door.Perlocutionary act(言后行為): the effect of the utterance: student goes to close the door第102頁103 Illocutionary Act Theory美國哲學家John Searle (約翰-塞爾， 1932-)在Austin理論基礎上把言外

55、行為深入分為5類：陳說（assertives），指示(directives)，承諾(commissives)，表示(expressives)，宣告（declaratives）第103頁 Conversational Implicature（會話含義理論）Theorist：英國語言學家Herbert Paul Grice (格萊斯，1913-1988)Main Idea: People do not usually say things directly but tend to imply them.第104頁The Cooperative Principle (CP，合作標準)Maxim of

56、 Quality（數量準則）Maxim of Quantity（質量準則）Maxim of Relation（關系準則）Maxim of Manner（方式準則）第105頁The Cooperative Principle (CP，合作標準)Maxim of Quality（數量準則）Do not say what you believe to be false.Do not say something if you lack adequate evidence;Maxim of Quantity（質量準則）Maxim of Relation（關系準則）Maxim of Manner（方式準則

57、）第106頁LOREM IPSUM DOLORMaxim of Quality（數量準則）Maxim of Quantity（質量準則）：Make your contribution as informative as required (for the current purposes of the exchange).Do not make your contribution more informative than required. Maxim of Relation（關系準則）Maxim of Manner（方式準則）第107頁LOREM IPSUM DOLORMaxim of Q

58、uality（數量準則）Maxim of Quantity（質量準則）Maxim of Relation（關系準則）：Be relative.Maxim of Manner（方式準則）第108頁LOREM IPSUM DOLORMaxim of Quality（數量準則）Maxim of Quantity（質量準則）Maxim of Relation（關系準則）Maxim of Manner(方式準則)： Be perspicuous.Avoid obscurity of expression.Avoid ambiguity.Be brief.Be orderly.第109頁Macro-Lin

59、guistics宏觀語言學LOREM IPSUM DOLOR第110頁LOREM IPSUM DOLORSociolinguistics 社會語言學1.定義2.語言變體 language variety3.雙語 第111頁LOREM IPSUM DOLORSociolinguistics 社會語言學1定義：The sub-field of linguistics that studies the relation between language and society, between the uses of language and the social structures in whi

60、ch the users of language live.Speech語言變體雙語第112頁LOREM IPSUM DOLORSociolinguistics 社會語言學定義Speech variety/language variety 語言變體: refer to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or a group of speakers.雙語第113頁speakerregionageracegendersocial classsituation第114頁Language variety 語言變體regionReg