1、Chapter 1 . Structural Mechanics 構(gòu)造力學(xué)1.1 Classification and Behavior of Structural Systems and Elements系統(tǒng)構(gòu)造和元素的分類和作用1.2 Determinate and Indeterminate Structures 靜定和超靜定構(gòu)造 1.3 Structural Dynamics 構(gòu)造動力學(xué)Chapter 2. Structural Material 土木工程材料2.1 Materials for Concrete and Mix Proportion 砼材料及配比2.2 Properti

2、es of Concrete 砼的性能2.3 Steel Materials 鋼材料2.4 Structural Steel Shapes 型鋼Chapter 3. Structural Design concepts 構(gòu)造設(shè)計3.1 Load conditions and Load Paths 負(fù)載條件和加載途徑3.2 Limit State Design 極限狀態(tài)設(shè)計Chapter 4. Concrete Structure 鋼筋混凝土構(gòu)造4.1 Flexural Behavior of Reinforced Concrete Beam 鋼筋混凝土梁的彎曲性能4.2 Shear and D

3、iagonal Tension in Reinforced Concrete Beam 鋼筋混凝土梁的剪切和斜拉4.3Bond , Anchorage, and Development Length 連接，錨固，基本錨固長度Chapter 1 . Structural Mechanics 構(gòu)造力學(xué)1.1 . Classification and Behavior of Structural Systems and Elements系統(tǒng)構(gòu)造和元素的分類和作用Common rigid elements include beams, columns or struts, arches, flat p

4、lates, singly curved plates, and shells having a variety of different curvatures. Flexible elements include cables (straight and draped) and membranes(planar, singly curved, and doubly curved). In addition, there are a number of other types of structures that are derived from these elements(e.g, fra

5、mes, trsses, geodesic domes, nets, etc. )(figure 1.1)常用的剛性元件涉及梁，柱，支撐，圓拱，平板，單向板彎曲面，具有不同的曲率的翹體。柔性元素涉及電纜（直披）和膜構(gòu)造（平面，單向板彎曲面，雙曲面）。此外也有某些來自這些元素（如框架，桁架，測量短程線，網(wǎng)格等）Frames 框架The frame has rigid joints that are made between vertical and horizontal members. This joint rigidity imparts (予以) a measure of stabilit

6、y against lateral forces. In a framed system both beams and columns are bent or bowed（彎如弓的）as a consequence of the action of the load on the structure. 框架的垂直和水平直接有剛性連接，這樣的節(jié)點予以了一定限度上的穩(wěn)定性抵御側(cè)向作用力。在一種框架的系統(tǒng)張，梁和柱的彎曲或弓形彎如弓的形狀都是構(gòu)造上負(fù)載的作用效果。Trusses 桁架Trusses are structural members made by assembling short, st

7、raight members into triangulated patterns. The resultant （組合的, 合成的）structure is rigid as a result of the exact （精確的) way the individual line elements are positioned relative to one another. Some patterns (e.g. a pattern of squares rather than triangles) do not necessarily yield a structure that is r

8、igid (unless joints are treated in the same way as in framed structures). A truss composed of discrete elements is bent in an overall way under the action of an applied transverse loading in much the same way that a beam is bent. Individual truss members, however, are not subject to bending but are

9、only either compressed or pulled upon. 桁架構(gòu)造構(gòu)件是通過短直桿組裝成三角形的圖案。組合的成果的精確方式相對于彼此的位置的各行元素的構(gòu)造是剛性的。不一定會產(chǎn)生某些剛性的模型（例如，一種模型的平方不一定是三角形圖案）（除非在框架構(gòu)造中相似的解決）。由分立元件構(gòu)成的桁架在大體相似的方式，彎曲梁所施加的橫向載荷的作用下，在一種整體方式的彎曲。個人桁架構(gòu)件，不能彎曲只能壓縮或拉后。Arches拱門 An arch is a curved, line-forming structural member that spans between two points. T

10、he exact shape of the curve and the nature of the loading are critical determinants as to whether the resultant assembly is stable. When shapes are formed by simply stacking rigid block elements, the resultant structure is functional and stable only when the action of the load is to induce in-plane

11、forces that cause the structure to compress uniformly. Structures of this type cannot carry loads that induce elongations or any pronounced type of bowing in the member (the blocks simply pull apart and failure occurs). The strength of a block structure is due exclusively to the positioning of indiv

12、idual elements, since blocks are typically either simply rested one on another or mortared together. The positioning is, in turn, dependent on the exact type of loading involved. The resultant structure is thus rigid only under very particular circumstances.圓拱 一種拱形的彎曲線形成的構(gòu)造部件，兩點之間的跨越。曲線的精確性質(zhì)和性質(zhì)是所得到的

13、組件與否是穩(wěn)定的核心決定因素。當(dāng)通過簡樸地堆疊剛性塊體元件的形狀形成的構(gòu)造是功能性的和穩(wěn)定的，又有當(dāng)負(fù)載的作用是誘導(dǎo)面內(nèi)的力量時才導(dǎo)致構(gòu)造的均勻壓縮。這種類型的構(gòu)造不能進(jìn)行負(fù)載誘導(dǎo)伸長或任何明顯的拉伸（只需拉開塊發(fā)生故障）。嵌段構(gòu)造的強度是由于單個元素導(dǎo)致的，由于塊一般是在躺在另一種上或砂漿砌在一起。只有在非常特殊的狀況下，所得到的的構(gòu)造才是剛性的。The rigid arch is frequently used in modern building. It is curved similarly to block arches but is made of one continuous p

14、iece of deformed rigid material. If rigid arches are properly shaped, they can carry a load to supports while being subject only to axial compression, and no bending occurs. The rigid arch is better able to carry variations in the design loading than is its block counterpart made of individual piece

15、s. Many types of rigid arches exist and are often characterized by their support conditions (fixed, two-hinged, three-hinged).現(xiàn)代建筑中常用的剛性拱，同樣是彎曲的制止拱，但它是由一塊持續(xù)變形的剛性材料制成的。如果制成剛性拱的形狀，它們可以承受的負(fù)載支座僅受軸向壓縮的同步并沒有發(fā)生彎曲。剛性拱是可以更好地進(jìn)行變化的塊相應(yīng)的單件制成的。存在許多類型的剛性拱的特點常常是它們的支持條件（固定，雙絞鏈、三鉸鏈）Walls and Plates墻板Walls and flat pl

16、ates are rigid surface-forming structures. A load-bearing wall can typically carry both vertical loads and lateral loads (wind, earthquake) along its length. Resistance to out-of-plane forces in block walls is marginal. A flat plate is typically used horizontally and carries loads by bending to its

17、supports. Plate structures are normally made of reinforced concrete or steel.墻板 墻壁和平板表面形成的構(gòu)造是剛性的。承重墻一般可以進(jìn)行沿其長度的垂直荷載和側(cè)向荷載（風(fēng)。地震）。砌塊墻的平面的抵御力是微局限性道的。一般用于平板進(jìn)行水平和通過彎曲其支持負(fù)載。板構(gòu)造一般是由鋼筋混凝土或剛構(gòu)成的。Horizontal plates can also be made by assembling patterns of short, rigid line elements. Three-dimensional triangula

18、tion schemes are used to impart stiffness to the resultant assembly.水平板也可以通過組裝短，剛性線的模式。三維三角形測量設(shè)計是用來賦予所得到的組件的剛度的。Long, narrow rigid plates can also be joined along their long edges and used to span horizontally in beam-like fashion. These structures, called folded plates, have the potential for spann

19、ing fairly large distances.長，狹窄的剛性板也可以加入和使用到潮流的水平跨越梁中。這些構(gòu)造，被稱為折疊的板，有也許跨越相稱大的距離。Cylindrical Shells and Vaults 柱形殼和拱頂Cylindrical barrel shells and vaults are examples of singly curved-plate structure. A barrel shell spans longitudinally such that the curve is perpendicular to the direction of the span

20、. When fairly long, a barrel shell behaves much like a beam with a curved cross section. Barrel shells are invariably made of rigid materials (e.g., reinforced concrete or steel). A vault, by contrast, is a singly curved structure that spans transversely. A vault can be conceived of as basically a c

21、ontinuous arch.柱形殼和拱頂 圓柱型的筒和拱頂都是單獨的弧形板式構(gòu)造的例子。一種鏡筒外殼跨越縱向曲線垂直的方向的弧度。當(dāng)足夠長的時候，每筒外殼采用的弧形截面梁很像。筒，炮彈等都提出了硬質(zhì)材料（如鋼筋混凝土或鋼）。相反的，儲藏庫是一種單獨的弧形構(gòu)造，橫向跨越。儲藏庫可以設(shè)想基本是是一種持續(xù)的拱。Spherical Shells and Domes球殼和圓頂A wide variety of doubly curved surface structures are in use .These include structures that are portions of sphere

22、s and those that form warped surface (e.g , the hyperbolic paraboloid ). The number of shapes possible is actually boundless. Probably the most common doubly curved structures is the spherical shell. It is convenient to think of this structure as a rotated arch. This analogy, however, is actually mi

23、sleading with respect to how the structure actually carries loads because of the fact that loadings include circumferential forces in spherical shells which do not exist in arches. Domed structures can be made of stacked blocks or a continuous rigid material (reinforced concrete). Shells and domes a

24、re very efficient structures capable of spanning large distances using a minimum of material.球形殼 多種各樣的雙曲面構(gòu)造都在使用中，這些涉及球部和它所形成的扭曲的表面的構(gòu)造（例如，雙曲拋物線）。某些也許的形狀事實上是無限的。也許最常用的雙曲面構(gòu)造是球殼。它覺得這種構(gòu)造的旋轉(zhuǎn)拱很以便。但是，這個比方事實上是誤導(dǎo)了構(gòu)造是如何進(jìn)行負(fù)載的。由于，載荷涉及切線力在球殼中不存在拱門。圓頂構(gòu)造，可以由層疊塊或持續(xù)的剛性材料（鋼筋混凝土）構(gòu)成。殼頂構(gòu)造是非常有效的，它可以用至少的材料覆蓋很大的距離。Cables（索）

25、Cables are flexible structural elements. The shape they assume （take on ）under a loading depends on the nature and magnitude of the load. When a cable is simple pulled on at either end, it assumes a straight shape. This type of cable is often called a tie-rod.When a cable is used to span between two

26、 points and carry an external point load or series of point loads, it deforms into a shape made up of a series of straight-line segments. When a continuous load （distributed load,）is carried, the cable deforms into a continuously curving shape. The self weight of the cable itself produces such a cat

27、enary curve Suspension cables can be used to span extremely large distances索 索是可彎曲的構(gòu)造元件。它們呈現(xiàn)加載的形狀取決于負(fù)載的性質(zhì)和嚴(yán)重限度。當(dāng)很簡樸地拉索的任一端時，它假定了直板造型。這種類型的索一般被稱為轉(zhuǎn)向橫拉桿。當(dāng)索用于跨越兩個點之間并進(jìn)行外部負(fù)載或一系列的點荷載，變形的形狀由一系列的直線段。當(dāng)進(jìn)行持續(xù)負(fù)載（分布荷載），索變形成了持續(xù)彎曲的形狀。索自身的自重產(chǎn)生這樣的懸鏈線，吊索可用于跨越非常大的距離。Membranes, Tents, and Nets 膜、 帳篷、網(wǎng) A membrane is a th

28、in, flexible sheet. A common tent is made of membranes surfaces. Both simple and complex forms can be created using membranes. For surfaces of double curvature, such as a spherical surface, however, the actual surface would have to be made as an assembly of much smaller segments, since most membrane

29、s are typically available only in flat sheets. A further implication of using a flexible membrane to create the surface is that it either has to be suspended with the convex side pointing downward or, if used with the convex side pointing upward, supplemented by some mechanism to its shape. Pneumati

30、c, or air-inflated, structures. The shape of the membrane is maintained by the internal air pressure inside the structure. Another mechanism is to apply external jacking forces that stretch the membrane into the desired shape. Various stressed-skin structures are of this general type. The need to pr

31、etension the skin, however, imposes various limitations on the shape that can be formed. Spherical surfaces, for example, are very difficult to pretension by external jacking forces, while others, such as the hyperbolic paraboloid, can be handled with comparative ease. 膜、 帳篷、網(wǎng) 是一種薄的膜，柔性板，一種常用的帳篷是由膜表

32、面構(gòu)成的。既簡樸又復(fù)雜的形式可以創(chuàng)立使用膜。對于雙曲率，如球面的表面。但是實際的表面將要作為一種組件的更小的段，由于大多數(shù)膜一般僅合用于平板。用一柔性膜片創(chuàng)立表面的再一種含義是，它要么必須暫停與凸側(cè)朝向下方，或者，如果使用凸側(cè)朝上，通過某些機制來補充其形狀。充氣式膜構(gòu)造的膜形狀是由內(nèi)部的構(gòu)造的內(nèi)部氣壓。另一種機制是應(yīng)用外部抬升力，拉伸膜成所需的形狀。強淘氣膚的多種構(gòu)造的這種通用類型，然而，需要預(yù)拉伸皮膚施加多種條件的限制，可以形成的形狀。球的表面，是非常困難的外部頂力，但是其她的，如雙曲拋物面可以比較容易解決。Nets are very analogous to membrane skins.

33、 By allowing the mesh opening to vary as needed, a wide variety of surface shapes can be formed. An advantage of using crossed cables is that the positioning of the cables mitigates fluttering due to wind suctions and pressures. In addition, tension forces are typically induced into the cables by ja

34、cking devices, so that the whole surface is turned into a type of stretched skin. This also gives the roof stability and resistance to flutter.網(wǎng)是非常類似的膜皮，通過使網(wǎng)眼根據(jù)需要進(jìn)行變化，多種各樣的表面形狀可以形成。使用交叉索的一種長處是，使索的定位減輕由于風(fēng)的吸力和壓力產(chǎn)生的飄動。此外，張力一般誘導(dǎo)索頂裝置，使整個表面變成一種類型的伸展。這也給了頂板穩(wěn)定性和抗顫性。1.2 2.Basic Issues in the Analysis and Des

35、ign of Structures構(gòu)造分析與設(shè)計中的基本問題 1 Fundamental Structural Phenomena1. 基本構(gòu)造現(xiàn)象Structure components could break apart or deform badly. The forces causing overturning or collapse come from the specific environmental (e.g., wind, earthquakes, occupancies )or from the self-weight of the form itself. These s

36、ame applied loadings produce internal force in a structure that stress the material used and may cause it to fail or deform. There are several fundamental ways in which failure can occur.構(gòu)造組件可以破壞或嚴(yán)重變形，由力的作用導(dǎo)致的傾覆或來自特定的環(huán)境（例如，風(fēng)，地震，占用）再或者是自身的自重的形式。這些相似的應(yīng)用負(fù)荷產(chǎn)生的內(nèi)力在一種構(gòu)造中使用的材料也許會導(dǎo)致其變形或失敗。有幾種基本的措施，其中也許會發(fā)生故障。

37、A first set of concerns deals with the overall stability of a work. As a whole unit, a structure might overturn, slide, or twist about its base, particularly when subjected to horizontally acting wind or earthquake forces. Sliding under its own weight. Overturning or twisting need not be caused only

38、 by horizontally acting forces. A work might simply be out of balance under its own self-weight and overturning. The use of wide, rigid foundations helps prevent overturning, as does the use of special foundation elements such as piles capable of carrying tension forces.第一組關(guān)注解決工作的整體穩(wěn)定性。作為一種整體單元，構(gòu)造也許

39、會傾覆，滑移，扭轉(zhuǎn)。特別是當(dāng)風(fēng)或地震的水平作用時，其自身重量下滑，翻倒或扭轉(zhuǎn)不只是引起水平作用力。在自身的重量和傾覆的作用下，也許只是失去了平衡。使用寬，剛性的基本，有助于避免傾覆，不使用例如可以攜帶張力樁的特殊要數(shù)。A second set of concerns deals with internal, or relational, stability. If the parts of a structure are not properly arranged in space or interconnected appropriately, an entire assembly(組裝)c

40、an collapse internally. Collapses of this type invariably involve large relative movements within the structure itself. Assemblies may be internally stable under one loading condition and unstable under another. Horizontally acting wind or earthquake forces, in particular, cause collapses of this ki

41、nd. There are several basic mechanisms-walls, frame action, cross bracing for making an assembly internally stable.第二組有關(guān)解決內(nèi)部關(guān)系穩(wěn)定。如果有部分的構(gòu)造空間組合不合理，或真?zhèn)€組裝不合理，可以合適地互相連接，內(nèi)部折疊。這種類型導(dǎo)致的坍塌總是波及大型構(gòu)造自身的相對運動。組件也許是一種裝載條件下內(nèi)部穩(wěn)定和不穩(wěn)定的根據(jù)項。水平因素風(fēng)或地震特別會使其坍塌。有幾種基本的機制墻壁，框架動作，交叉支撐組件的內(nèi)部穩(wěn)定。A third set of concerns deals with th

42、e strength and stiffness of constituent elements.There are many structure issues that revolve around the strength of component parts of a structure. These failures, which may or may not lead to total collapse, may be caused by excessive tension, compression, bending, shear, torsional, bearing forces

43、, or deformations that are developed internally in the structure as a consequence of the applied loadings. Associated with each force state are internal stresses that actually exist within the fabric of the material itself. By carefully designing components in response to the force state present, th

44、e actual stresses developed in the components can be controlled to safe levels.第三組的關(guān)注解決的強度和剛度的構(gòu)造元素。諸多構(gòu)造環(huán)繞一種構(gòu)造構(gòu)成部分的強度問題。這些故障也許會導(dǎo)致全面崩潰，也許是由于過度緊張，壓縮，彎曲，剪切，扭轉(zhuǎn)，軸承，或變形，在構(gòu)造內(nèi)部開發(fā)的應(yīng)用負(fù)荷的后果。每個受力狀態(tài)，事實上存在于物質(zhì)材料自身的內(nèi)應(yīng)力。通過仔細(xì)地設(shè)計組件的受力狀態(tài)，開發(fā)組件的實際應(yīng)力可以被控制到安全水平。2. Structural Stability構(gòu)造穩(wěn)定性A Fundamental consideration in desi

45、gning a structure is that of assuring its stability under any type of possible loading condition. All structures undergo some shape changes under load.In a stable structure deformations induced by the action of the load tend to restore the structure to its original shape after the load has been remo

46、ved. In an unstable structure, the deformations induced by a load are typically massive and often tend to continue increasing as long as the load is applied. An unstable structure does not generate internal forces that tend to restore the structure to its original configuration. Unstable structures

47、quite often collapse completely and instantaneously as a load is applied to them. It is the fundamental responsibility of the structural designer to assure that a proposed structure does indeed form a stable configuration.設(shè)計構(gòu)造的最基本需要考慮的問題，是任何類型的也許負(fù)載的條件下保證其穩(wěn)定性。所有的構(gòu)造進(jìn)行某些穩(wěn)定構(gòu)造的變形引起的負(fù)載的作用下的形狀變化，趨向于回訪到初始形狀

48、的構(gòu)造已經(jīng)被刪除。在不穩(wěn)定的構(gòu)造中，由負(fù)載引起的變形一般是大規(guī)模的，并且常常施加載荷時，只要繼續(xù)增長。一種不穩(wěn)定的構(gòu)造不會產(chǎn)生內(nèi)部的力量，往往恢復(fù)到本來的配備構(gòu)造。常常不穩(wěn)定構(gòu)造完全折疊和瞬間作為負(fù)載被施加到它們身上。它的基本構(gòu)造設(shè)計師的責(zé)任，以保證建議的構(gòu)造的確形成一種穩(wěn)定的配備。Stability is a crucial issue in the design of structures that are assemblies of discrete elements. For example, the post-and-beam structure illustrated in fig

49、ure 1.2a is apparently stable. Any horizontal force, however, tends to cause deformations of the type indicated in figure 1.2b. clearly, the structure has no capacity to resist horizontal load, nor does it have any mechanism that tends to restore it to its initial shape after the horizontal load is

50、removed. The large changes in angle that occur between members characterize an unstable structure that is beginning to collapse. This particular structure will collapse almost instantaneously under load. Consequently, this particular pattern of members is referred to as a collapse mechanism.穩(wěn)定是一種至關(guān)重

51、要的問題，在設(shè)計分立元件的組件構(gòu)造。例如，梁柱構(gòu)造示意圖1.2a所示顯然是穩(wěn)定的。然而，在任何水平方向的力往往會導(dǎo)致在圖1.2b的不同變形。構(gòu)造清晰，有無能力抵御水平荷載，也沒有任何機制，傾向于恢復(fù)到其初始形狀，水平荷載后刪除。浮現(xiàn)大的變化角度特性不穩(wěn)定的構(gòu)造開始崩潰。這種特殊的構(gòu)造將在負(fù)載下瞬間崩潰。因此，這個特定的圖案被稱為“崩潰機制”There are really only a few fundamental ways of converting a self-standing structure of the general type shown in figure 1.2a fro

52、n an unstable to a stable configuration. These are illustarated in figure 1.2d. the first is to add a diagonal member to the structure. The structure cannot now undergo the parallelogram indicated in figure 1,2b without a dramatic release in the length of the diagonal member (this would not occur if

53、 the diagonal were adequately sized to take the forces involved). Another method used to assure stability is through shear walls. These are rigid planar surface elements that inherently resist shape changes of the type illustrated. A reinforced concrete or masonry wall can be used as a shear wall. E

54、ither a full or a partial wall can be used (the required extent of a partial wall depends on the magnitudes of the forces involved). A final method used to achieve stability is through stopping the large angular changes between members that are associated with collapse by assuring that the nature of

55、 the nature of the connections between members is such that their angular relationship remains a constant value under any loading. This is done by making a rigid joint between members. This is a very common form of joint.真的只有一項獨立的通用型數(shù)字1.2a不穩(wěn)定的一種穩(wěn)定的配備構(gòu)造轉(zhuǎn)換的某些基本措施。這些在圖1.2d上。成為第一種是增長一種對角構(gòu)件的構(gòu)造。構(gòu)造目前不能接受對角

56、線的長度（如果對角線有足夠大的力量，這種狀況不會發(fā)生）沒有一種戲劇性的釋放b圖1,2所示的平行四邊形。用來保證穩(wěn)定性的另一種措施是通過剪力墻。這些平面的表面是剛性的元素本質(zhì)上所示類型的抗蝕劑形狀的變化。可用于鋼筋混凝土或磚石墻作為剪力墻。完整或部分的壁可用于（部分壁所需的限度上依賴于所波及的力的大小）。用于實現(xiàn)穩(wěn)定的最后一種措施是通過停止大角度變化，保證構(gòu)造之間的連接的性質(zhì)就是這樣原理的性質(zhì)，它們的角的關(guān)系仍然是一種恒定值。這是通過成員之間的剛性連接，是一種非常普遍的形式的聯(lián)合。There are, of course, variants on these basic methods of a

57、ssuring stability. Still most structures composed of discrete elements rely on one or the other of these basic approaches for stability. More than one approach can be used in a structure (e.g. a structure having both rigid joints and a diagonal), but a measure of redundancy is obviously involved.固然，

58、在這些基本的措施保證穩(wěn)定的變體。仍然由分立元件構(gòu)成的構(gòu)造依賴于一種或另一種穩(wěn)定這兩種基本措施。在一種構(gòu)造中，可以使用一種以上的措施（例如，具有兩個剛性接頭和對角線構(gòu)造），但顯然這波及一定限度的冗余。1.2 Determinate and Indeterminate Structures 靜定和超靜定構(gòu)造1.2Determinate and Indeterminate Structures靜定與超靜定構(gòu)造1.2.1 Statically Determinate Structures超靜定構(gòu)造 Structures are said to be statically determinate whe

59、n the forces and reactions produced by a given loading can be calculated using only the equations of equilibrium. The simply supported beam shown in Figure 1.3 is statically determinate. We can solve for the three unknown reactions using the equations of equilibrium and then calculate the internal f

60、orces such as bending moment, shear force, and axial force at any given location along the length of the beam. 構(gòu)造被稱為靜定期的力和反映的一種給定的荷載產(chǎn)生可以只使用平衡方程計算。簡支梁在圖1.3所示是靜定。我們可以解決三未知的反映，運用平衡方程，然后計算等內(nèi)力彎矩，剪切力，和在任何給定的位置沿梁的長度的軸向力。 1.2.3 Force Method 力法 The force method (also called the flexibility method) is used to