1、 Chapter1IntroductionWhatislinguistics?DefinitionLinguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.Thescopeoflinguistics語言學范疇Phonetics語音學/Phonology音系學/Morphology形態學/Syntax句法學/Semantics語義學/Pragmatics語用學Macrolinguistics宏觀語言學：sociolinguistics社會語言學/Psycholinguistics心理語言學/Appliedlinguistics應用語言

2、學Importantdistinctionsinlinguistics語言學中重要區別prescriptivevs.descriptive規定性與描述性synchronicvs.diachronic共時性與歷時性|Saussurespeech&writing口語和書面語langue&parole語言(抽象)和言語(具體)|Saussurrcompetence&performance能力和運用Chomskytraditionalgrammar&modernlinguistics傳統語法和現代語言學索緒爾現代語言學之父1.2Whatislanguage?DefinitionoflanguageLa

3、nguageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.Designfeaturesoflanguage語言的區別U性特征|Hocket，Arbitrariness任意性：符號的音與義之間沒有邏輯聯系。比如說，不同的語言使用不同的音指相同的事物。Productivity/Creativity創造性：語言可以被創造。Duality二重性：語言在結構上存在兩個層次一一低層次（音標）和高層次（詞素、單詞等）。Displacement移位性：語言不受語言時空距離的影響。Culturaltransmission文化傳遞性：語言體系具

4、體內容的習得要通過后天的學習來獲得。Functionoflanguage（descriptivefunction/expressivefunction/socialfunction）informative信息功能/interpersonal人際功能/performative施為功能/emotive感情功能/phaticcommunication寒暄功能/recreational娛樂功能/metalinguistic兀語言功能Phonology音系學Thephonicmediumoflanguage語言的聲音媒介Phonetics語音學Whatisphonetics?什么是語音學？Phoneti

5、csisdefinedasthestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage;itisconcernedwithallthesoundsthatoccurintheworldslanguages.articulatoryphonetics發音語音學研究語言的產生threepointsofviewJauditoryphonetics聽覺語音學研究語言怎樣被感知acousticphonetics聲學語音研究語音的物理屬性Organsofspeech發音器官（thepharyngealcavity-thethroat咽腔theoralcavity-themouth口腔thenas

6、alcavity-thenose鼻腔Broadandnarrowtranscriptions寬式和窄式音標TheInternationalPhoneticAlphabet（IPA國際音標）DanielJones1888Phonology音系學Phonologyandphonetics音系學和語音學Phonologyisthestudyabouthowspeechsoundinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.Phoneticsisthescientifics

7、tudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage;itisconcernedwithdefiningandclassifyingspeechsounds.phonology研究抽象的音位類型與規則一一樣Differences:linleap&peelJphonetics研究具體發音部位與方式不同Phone,phoneme,andallophone音素、音位和音位變體（1）音素：是語音學研究的單位，是一個個具體的聲音。（2）音位：是音系學研究的單位，是抽象的概念，每一個音位是一組語音特征的集合體，音位具有區別意義的作用。“/”（3）音位變體：是一個音位在特定的語音環境力的具體體現，

8、同一音位在不同語音環境里體現為不同的變體，也就是語音。/k/:kschoolkhcollkskikhkeel總結：語音學-音素-發音-口音系學-音位-不發音-/Phonemiccontrast,complementarydistribution,andminimalpair音位對立，互補分布，最小對立體（1）音位對立：兩個音位出現在相同的語音環境中，且具有區別語義的功能。例：tip和dip中的/t/和/d/；rope和robe中的/p/和/b/（2）互補分布：同一音位不同音位變體之間的關系，且沒有區別意義的功能。例：top中送氣的th和stop中不送氣的t（3）最小對立體：出現在同一位置上的一

9、個音之外其余都相同的兩個語音組合。例：bill和pill（輔音）,bet和but（元音）Somerulesinphonology音系學規則Sequentialrules序列規則三輔音連綴規則：/s/p/,/t/,/k/l/,/r/,/w/Assimilationrule同化規則Deletionrule省略規則:gSuprasegmentalfeatures超音段特征Stress重讀Tone音調/聲調Intonation語調Morphology形態學IntroductionMorphologyisconcernedwithwordformationandwordstructure.形態學研究單詞

10、的內部結構和構詞規則。OpenclassandclosedclassOpenclasswords開放詞類：contentwords實詞nouns,verbs,adjectives.Closedclasswords封閉詞類：functionwords虛詞conjunctions,articles.Morphemestheminimalunitsofmeaning詞素一最小的“語義”單位（reader是一個單詞，read和er是兩個詞素/boys是一個單詞，boy和s是兩個詞素）Freeandboundmorphemes自由詞素和黏著詞素自由詞素有完整語義如：book;helpful中的help黏

11、著詞素-詞根、詞綴Allomorphs詞素變體如：a放在輔音前；an放在元音前books,bags,judges中的s三種不同的讀音Analyzingwordstructuresrootsandaffixes(prefix,infix,suffix)Derivationalandinflectionalmorphemesderivationalmorphemes派生詞素：構成新單詞如：-ate,inter-,-ism.inflectionalmorphemes曲折詞素：改變數、時、格、級如：-s,-ed,-er,-est(自由詞素free,前綴prefix派生詞素derivationalJ黏著

12、詞素boundJ1后綴suffix曲折詞素inflectionalMorphologicalrulesofwordformationDerivation派生詞Compounds復合詞DefinitionAcompoundwordismadewhentwowordsarejoinedtoformanewword.復合詞特征：Orthographically書寫特征：inthreeways:solid(airmail);hyphenated(air-conditioning);open(airforce,airraid)Syntactically句法特征：復合詞的詞性一般取決于復合詞最后一個成分的

13、詞性Semantically語義特征：復合詞的意義具有習語性質，許多復合詞的意義都不是其構成成分意義和總和Phonetically語音特征：復合詞的單詞重音落在第一個構成成分上Syntax句法學Whatissyntax?Syntaxisabranchoflinguisticsthatstudiestherulesthatgoverntheformationofsentences.CategoriesWord-levelcategories（1）majorlexicalcategories:n.v.a.prep.（2）minorlexicalcategories:/determiner（Det限

14、定詞）一the,a,this,those.degreewords（Deg程度詞）一quite,so,more.qqualifier（Qual頻率詞）一often,always,almost.auxiliary（Aux助動詞）一must,should,can.iconjunction（Con連接詞）一and,but,or.Phrasecategoriesandtheirstructures（1）NPtheprettygirl/VPoftendream/APverypessimistic（2）head中心語；specifier標志語；complement補足語Phrasestructurerule

15、XPruleXPSpecifierXComplementHead(thegirlintheroom)Coordinationrule：XXCon(連詞)XPhraseelementsSpecifiers標志語SpecifiersHeadsExamplesdeterminerNthetree,nowater,thisbook.qualifierValwaysfail,oftendrink,neverleave.degreewordAlessboring,quitegood,verysensitive.Palmostin,quiteabove.Complements補足語CPItemsHeadsE

16、xamplesAsAdjectivesafraid,awareIwasafraidthatnobodywouldbelieveme.NsNounsfact,beliefShecantbelievethefactthatshewouldfail.PsPrepositionsover,aboutTheyarguedoverwhethershehadcometoclass.4.4.3ModifiersModifierPositionExampleAPprecedestheheadaverycarefulgirlPPfollowstheheadopenwithcareAdvPprecedesorfol

17、lowstheheadreadcarefully;carefullyreadSentences（TheSRule）TransformationsAuxiliarymovement助動詞移位DoinsertionDeepstructureandsurfacestructure（thegenerativeapproach生成學派）（1）深層結構deepstructure指機構關系中的潛在層面underlyinglevel（移位還沒有發生的原始形態）：Thetrainwillarrive.（2）表層結構surfacestructure指結構形成的最后結果階段finalstage（移位后的新形態）：W

18、illthetrainarrive?（3）結構：TheXPRuleDeepStructureTransformationSurfaceStructureWhMovementMoveaandconstraintsontransformationSemantics語義學WhatissemanticsSemanticscanbesimplydefinedasthestudyofmeaning.SomeviewsconcerningthestudyofmeaningThenamingtheory指稱論PlatoThewordsusedinalanguagearesimplylabelsoftheobj

19、ectstheystandfor.Sowordsarejustnamesorlabelsforthings.Limitations:applicabletonounsonly;抽象名詞(ghost,joy,impulse.)Theconceptualistview觀念論OgdenandRichardsThereisnodirectlinkbetweenalinguisticformandwhatitrefersto.semantictriangle語義三角：Thought/Reference(能指：概念)ReferentSymbol/FormReferent（詞和語素）（所指：物體）（詞和語素

20、）Contextualism語境論J.R.Firth,Malinowski,WittgensteinMeaningshouldbestudiedintermsofsituation,use,contextelementscloselylinkedwithlanguagebehaviour.Behaviorism行為論Bloomfield,JackandJillTheStimulus-ResponseTheory(S-R)刺激-反應理論Lexicalmeaning詞匯意義Senseandreference系統意義與指稱意義Senseisconcernedwiththeinherentmeanin

21、gofalinguisticform,thecollectionofallitsfeatures.(抽象；脫離語境)如：dogReferencemeanswhatalinguisticformreferstointhereal,physicalworld;itdealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandthenon-linguisticworldofexperience.(具體)如：Thedogisbarking.Limitation:eveningstar(啟明星)andmorningstar(長庚星)是同一顆星。Majorse

22、nserelations主要的語義關系Synonymy同義關系Dialectalsynonyms-synonymsusedindifferentregionaldialects.地域同義詞如：秋天(autumn/fall);公寓(flat/apartment).Stylisticsynonyms-synonymsdifferinginstyle.文體同義詞如：daddy,dad,father,maleparent,oldman.Synonymsthatdifferintheiremotiveorevaluativemeaning.感情同義詞如：collaborator/accomplice均指

23、合作者，但前者為“合作伙伴”，后者為“同謀”Collocationalsynonyms搭配同義詞如：指“壞的食物”rottentomatoes,addledeggs,rancidbaconorbutter.Semanticallydifferentsynonyms意思非常相近的同義詞如：amaze/astoundPolysemy多義關系一詞多義Homonymythesameform,butdifferentmeaning同音同形異義關系Homophones:night/knight;piece/peace.Homographs:bow-v./n.;tear-v./nCompletehomony

24、ms:fast-adj./v.;scale-n./vHyponymy上下義關系Superordinate上義如：flower,animal.(2)Hyponymy下義如：(flower)rose,lily.;(animal)dog,cat.Antonymy反義關系Gradableantonymy分等級的反義關系如：cool-warm;hot-cold.Complementaryantonyms互補反義詞如：dead-alive;male-female.Relationalopposites關系反義詞如：husband-wife;father-son.Senserelationsbetweens

25、entencesXissynonymouswithY.如：X:Hewasabachelorallhislife.Y:Henevermarriedallhislife.XisinconsistentwithY.如：X:Johnismarried.Y:Johnisabachelor.XentailsY.(YisandentailmentofX)衍推如：X:HehasbeentoFranceY:HehasbeentoEurope.XpresupposeY.(YisaprerequisiteofX)預設如：X:ThequeenofEnglandisold.Y:Englandhasaqueen.Xisc

26、ontradiction.矛盾如：Myunmarriedsisterismarriedtoabachelor.Xissemanticallyanomalous.非正常的如：Thetablehadbadintentions.AnalysisofmeaningComponentialanalysisawaytoanalyzelexicalmeaningPredicationanalysisawaytoanalyzesentencemeaning補充：Leechandhis7typesofmeaning語義七分法(1)概念意義conceptualmeaning字面意義；(2)內涵意義connotat

27、ivemeaning實際交往過程中所指的事物；(3)社會意義(4)情感意義affectivemeaning(5)反射意義reflectivemeaning由一個詞語聯想起來的另外一種意義(6)搭配意義collocativemeaning(7)主位意義thematicmeaning通過調整信息的順序和強調內容所表達的意義Chapter6Pragmatics語用學SomebasicnotionsDefinitionPragmaticsisthestudyofspeakersofalanguageusesentencestoeffectsuccessfulcommunication.Pragmati

28、csvs.semanticssemantics不考慮語境ContextSentencemeaningvs.utterancemeaningSentencemeaning抽象的，去語境化Utterancemeaning具體的，依靠語境Speechacttheory言語行為理論AustinsmodelofspeechactsJohnAustin認為人在說話的同時也在進行一定的行為動作constativesandperformatives:constatives敘事句：描述說話人在說話時所作的動作。performatives施為句：實施某種行為。locutionaryact言內行為：表述字面意思il

29、locutionaryact言外行為：因言語本身的習慣力量而產生的其他一些行為perlocutionaryact言后行為：話語在聽者身上產生的效果SearlesclassificationofspeechactsJohnSearleillocutionaryacts:representatives/assertives:闡述類directives:指令類commissives:承諾類expressives:表達類declarations:宣告類6.2.3IndirectspeechactsJohnSearlePrimaryspeechact:goalSecondaryspeechact:mea

30、nsPrincipleofconversationPaulGrice說話人和聽話人為達一定的交際目的，都有一種默契，一種都遵循的原則Conventionalimplicature規約含義Particularizedconversationalimplicature特殊會話含義CooperativePrinciple(CP):合作原則Themaximofquantity數量準則Themaximofquality質量準則Themaximofrelation關系準則Themaximofmanner方式準則UCross-culturalpragmaticfailure跨文化語用失誤補充：后格賴斯時期的

31、發展Relevancetheory關聯理論：交際應被看做一種表明自身說話意圖的行為TheQ-andR-principles數量關系和關系原則：由LaurenceHorn提出LanguageChangeIntroductionOldEnglish.MiddleEnglish.ModernEnglishPhonologicalchangesMorphologicalandsyntacticchangeAdditionofaffixesLossofaffixesChangeofwordorderChangeinnegationruleLexicalandsemanticchangeAdditiono

32、fnewwordsCoinage:fornewthingsandobjects如：Kodak,digitalcamera.Clippedwords:如：gym(gymnasium),disco(discotheque)Blending:如：smog(smoke+fog),motel(motor+hotel)Acronyms:可讀首字母縮寫如：APEC,UNESCO.Back-formation:如：babysitter-babysit;donation-donate.Functionshift(conversion):如：n.-v.;v.-nBorrowing:如：tea,question,p

33、hysics.補充：cclipping:maths,burger.(長單詞簡寫)Abbreviation縮寫：4initialism:UN,USA.(首字母縮寫)、acronym:UNESCO.(首字母縮合)LossofwordsSemanticchangesSemanticbroadening如：holiday-holydayanyrestdaytail-horseanyanimalSemanticnarrowing如：deer-anyanimal鹿meat-food肉SemanticshiftSomerecenttrendsMovingtowardsgreaterinformationTh

34、einfluenceofAmericanEnglishTheinfluenceofscienceandtechnologyThecausesoflanguagechangeLanguageandsocietyThescopeofsociolinguisticsThescopeofsociolinguisticsSociolinguisticsisthesub-fieldoflinguisticsthatstudiestherelationbetweenlanguageandsociety,betweentheusesoflanguageandthesocialstructuresinwhich

35、theusersoflanguagelive.Speechcommunityandspeechvariety語言社區與語言變體Speechcommunityisthesocialgroupthatissingledoutforanyspecialstudy.Speechvarietyreferstoanydistinguishableformofspeechusedbyaspeakeroragroupofspeakers.TwoapproachestosociolinguisticstudiesMacro-sociolinguistics:thesociologyoflanguageMicro

36、-sociolinguistics:sociolinguisticsproperVarietiesoflanguageDialectalvarieties方言變體Regionaldialect地域方言Aregionaldialectisalinguisticvarietyusedbypeoplelivinginthesameregion.Sociolect社會方言Sociolecthastodowithseparationbroughtaboutbydifferentsocialconditions.即：同一地域的人說的話也不盡相同，因為性別、年齡、等級、種族等差別。Languageandge

37、nderLanguageandageIdiolect個人習語Idiolectisapersonaldialectofanindividualspeakerthatcombineselementsregardingregional,social,gender,andagevariations.Ethnicdialect種族方言8.2.2Register語域8.2.2Register語域HallidayRegisteristhetypeoflanguagewhichisselectedasappropriatetothetypeofsituation.語言使用的場合或領域的總稱語域的三個社會變量：

38、Field語場：話語范圍，是話語涉及的主題內容。Tenor語旨：語言基調，是指話語發放者與接收者的關系，如作家與讀者。Mode語式：話語方式(口語形式與書面形式)。如：alectureonbiologyinatechnicalcollegecouldbeidentifiedas:Field:scientific(biological)Tenor:teacher-students(formal,polite)Mode:oral(academiclecturing)8.2.3Degreeofformality|MartinJoosintimate宣告；(2)casual;(3)consultative咨詢；(4)formal;(5)frozen刻板Standarddialect規范方言PidginandCreolePidgin洋涇浜語:aspeciallanguagevarietythatmixesorblendslanguagesanditisusedbypeoplewhospeakdifferentlanguagesforrestrictedpurposessuchastrading.Creole:由pidgin發展而來的，有自己