1、Lecture 11. SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION11.1 IntroductionSecond language acquisition (SLA): the systematic study of how one person acquires a second language subsequent to his native language (NL or L1). Target language (TL): Second language (SL or L2) or foreign language (FL).第1頁，共27頁。11.2 Connectio

2、ns between 1st language acquisition and 2nd language learningSecond language acquisition is different from 1st language acquisition and the language learners generally fail to attain native-like language competence. The language they produce is called interlangauge (IL) Interlangauge: (according to

3、Selinker) an abstract system of learners target language system. It is also termed as learner language. Fossilization has become one of the main features of interlanguage. 第2頁，共27頁。Some experts relate interlanguage to the learners partial access or no accrss to the universal grammar, others hold tha

4、t even if learners have full access to the universal grammar, it is done through their native language, and therefore, their language is short of native-like proficiency.L1/NL FL/SL(TL) Interlangauge (IL)NL: TL comparisons (Contrastive analysis)IL: TL Comparison (Error Analysis)Figure 11-1 Points of

5、 comparison for successive FL learning paradigms (from James (1998:3)第3頁，共27頁。11.3 Contrastive analysisInfluenced by the behaviorism view that second language learning could be regarded as the development of a set of habits, the native language took on great significance for it was regarded as the m

6、ajor cause for lack of success in learning a second language or foreign language. Positive transfer: facilitates target language learning.Negative transfer: interferes target language learning.第4頁，共27頁。Contrastive analysis (CA): came into fashion in 1960s. Starting with describing comparable feature

7、s of the native language and target language (e.g. tense, words or expressions etc.), contrastive analysis compares the forms and meanings across these two languages to locate the mismatches or differences so that people can predict the possible learning difficulty learners may encounter.Because of

8、its association with an outdated model of language description (structuralism and the increasingly discredited learning theory (behaviorism), the once predominant CA was gradually replaced by Error Analysis.第5頁，共27頁。11.4 Error AnalysisViewing the learners errors as markers in learning progress, erro

9、r analysis involves, first independently or “objectively”, describing the learners interlanguage (the version of the target language and the target language itself), then comparing the two forms to locate mismatches.Two main sorts of errors: interlingual and intralingual.Interlingual errors mainly r

10、esrlt from cross-linguistic interference at different levels usch as phonological, lexical, grammatical or discoursal, etc. e.g.(a) Substitution of t for and d for T (note that in Chinese, for instance, there are no such phonemes as T ).第6頁，共27頁。(b) shortening of long vowels (e.g. meat, sheep mispro

11、nounced as /mit/, ship).1) OvergeneralizationThe use of previously available strategies in new situations. E.g.(11-1) Jane advised me to give up smoking.(11-2) Jane told me to give up smoking.But it is misleading and inappropriate to infer(11-3)*Jane suggested me to give up smoking.第7頁，共27頁。2) Cross

12、-associationInference from similar spelling and pronunciation.(11-7) The coffee is very hot. I cannot drink it.The coffee is too hot to drink.But(11-8) The apricot is sour. I cannot eat it*The apricot is too sour to eat it.第8頁，共27頁。Linked with the division between competence and performance, errors

13、and mistakes were further distinguished. Errors are unintentional deviants from the target language and not self-corrigible by the learner and suggest failure in competence, but mistakes are either intentional or unintentional deviant forms and self-corrigible and suggest failure in performance.第9頁，

14、共27頁。Error analysis started to be criticized for its neglect of learners non-errors, the subjectivity of its interpretation of errors, its poor statistical interference, and its lack of any predictive power that any scientific procedure must have. Most importantly, learners role as active participan

15、ts in learning failed to receive due intention. As the “insufficiency of error analysis” mounted, error analysis became obsolete in the mid-1970s. The theoretical ground was being cleared for the new interlanguage paradigm.第10頁，共27頁。11.5 InterlanguageProposed by S. Pit Corder and Larry Selinker, int

16、erlanguage refers to learners independent system of the second language, which is of neither the native nor the second language, but a continuum or approximation from one extreme of his native language to the other of the second language.Linguists have conducted studies on interlanguage from linguis

17、tic, psycholinguistic, pragmatic, cognitive and other perspectives.第11頁，共27頁。Among the 3 important characteristicssystematicity, performeability and fossilizationof interlanguage, fossilization is defined as a process occurring from time to time in which incorrect linguistic features become a perman

18、ent part of the way a person speaks or writes a language. Common errors such as /l/ for /n/, /ei/, /e/ and / A / are typical fossilized phonetic mistakes for Chinese learners. Grammatical errors also permeate. Fossilization is now gaining increasing attention and scholars are trying to explain why l

19、earners are short of native-like proficiency in their second language learning.第12頁，共27頁。11.6 The role of the native language in second language learningThe differences or similarities between native and target languages would either lead to positive or negative transfer, such phenomena are called l

20、anguage interference. The behaviorists ascribed errors largely to the interference of learners native langauge. Their native language habits prevented them from learning second language habits. Therefore, while learning a new language, the learner should try to forget his native tongue. Contrastive

21、analysis between the languages was carried out to predict learning difficulties.第13頁，共27頁。With the fade-out of behaviorism, the mentalists argued that few errors were caused by language transfer; they played down the role of first language. However, this view did not hold water either. Meanwhile, th

22、e interlanguage position put learners first language back to the whole picture and studied its role from a cognitive perspective. learners use their first langauge to formulate second language learning hypothesis. In this sense, native language function as a kind of “input from inside”, therefore tr

23、ansfer is not physical carry-over, but a kind of mental process as well.第14頁，共27頁。Recent studies: 3 interacting factors in determining language transfer: a) a learners psychology, how a learner organizes his or her native language, b) a learners perception of native-target language distance, c) a le

24、arners actual knowledge of the target language. The native language influences not only occur as direct linguistic reflexes at phonological, lexical, semantic, syntactical or discoursal levels but also directly reflect underlying organizational principles of languages at the cognitive level. Resulti

25、ng in avoidance of certain target language structures, different learning rates, overproduction and different learning paths etc.第15頁，共27頁。11.7 Second language learning models and input hypothesisWhile the behaviorist model emphasizes the role of imitation and positive reinforcement, a “nurture” pos

26、ition, the mentalists or the innativists shift to a “nature” position by stressing that human beings, equipped innately with language acquisition device (LAD), are capable of language learning if provided with adequate input.Criteria in dividing the models and theories: to what extent second languag

27、e acquisition is a function of innateness.Innativist: a learners structural knowledge allws him or her to construct the grammar of the target language on the basis of limited data.第16頁，共27頁。The opposite: language acquisition and social interaction are mutually dependent and language acquisition cann

28、ot be understood if detached from the context it occurs.Krashens Input Hypothesis:Two independent means or routes of second language learning: acquisition and learning.Acquisition: a subconscious process without minute learning of grammatical rules.Learning: conscious efforts to learn the rules and

29、talking about the rules.第17頁，共27頁。Comprehensible input: i+1Where i: learners current state of knowledge; 1:new input.Krashens input hypothesis received criticism later, for he mistook “input” as “intake” (the actual share of input that has been internalized by the learner). The input hypothesis can

30、hardly answer the questions such as when the learners learn and what they need in learning a second language.第18頁，共27頁。11.8 Individual differences Language aptitude: the natural ability for learning a second language. (John Carroll) phonemic coding ability, grammatical sensitivity, inductive languag

31、e learning ability, and rote learning ability.第19頁，共27頁。Language aptitudeLanguage aptitude refers to a natural ability for learning a second language. It is believed to be related to a learners general intelligence. John Carroll identified some components of language aptitude:Phonemic coding ability

32、Grammatical sensitivityInductive language learning abilityRote learning ability第20頁，共27頁。MotivationMotivation can be defined as the learners attitudes and affective state or learning drive. It has a strong impact on his efforts in learning a second language. Generally four types of motivations have

33、been identified:Instrumental motivationIntegrative motivationResultative motivationIntrinsic motivation第21頁，共27頁。Learning strategiesLearning strategies are learners conscious, goal-oriented and problem-solving based efforts to achieve learning efficiency. According to Chamot (1986) & Oxford (1990),

34、three types of strategies have been identified:Cognitive strategies - analyzing,synthesis and internalizing what has been learned.Metacognitive strategies - planning, monitoring and evaluating ones learning.Affect/social strategies - the ways learners interact with other speakers. Cohen (1998) further dis