1、 Look at the diagram again, and try to understand it.PhonologyLinguisticsPhoneticsSounds of languageGrammarMorphology SyntaxMeaningSemantics PragmaticsPhonetics &PhonologyConcepts of PhoneticsConcepts of Phonology1.Definition of phonetics2. Branches of phonetics3. Speech organs4. Phonetic transc

2、ription5. Classification of consonants6. Classification of vowels1.Definition of phonologyDifference between phonetics and phonology2.Phone/phoneme/allophone3.Minimal pair/Free variation4.Complementary distribution5.Assimilation6.SuprasegmentalsPhonologyPhonetics & phonology SimilaritySimilarity

3、: Both are concerned : Both are concerned with the with the speech soundsspeech sounds in human in human communication. communication. DifferencesDifferences: They differ in their : They differ in their approachapproach and and focusfocus. . Whats the focus of Whats the focus of Phonetics?Phonetics?

4、 Phonetics & phonology Phonetics: the study of the phonetic medium of language,the speech sounds. Phonology: the study of sound system of language, the sound pattern.Phonetics & phonology Phonetics: It is of It is of general naturegeneral nature. . It interests in all the speech It interests

5、 in all the speech sounds used in all human sounds used in all human languages, all the possible languages, all the possible speech sounds.speech sounds. Phonology: It is very often It is very often language-specificlanguage-specific. It aims to . It aims to discover how speech sounds in discover ho

6、w speech sounds in a a languagelanguage formform patternspatterns. .Phonetics & phonology Phonetics is concerned with how speech souds are made, transmitted and received, how , how they differ from each other, what they differ from each other, what phoneticphonetic featuresfeatures they have, an

7、d they have, and how they can be how they can be classifiedclassified, etc., etc.Phonetics & phonology Phonology is concerned with the linguistic patterning of sounds in a language. It aims to discover discover how speech sounds in how speech sounds in a languagea language formform patternspatte

8、rns, how these sounds how these sounds are used to are used to conveyconvey meaningmeaning in in linguistic communication, what linguistic communication, what are the pinciples that goven the are the pinciples that goven the way sounds are organized in a way sounds are organized in a langauge and to

9、 explain the langauge and to explain the variations that occur.variations that occur. l & , t in tea and too PhoneticiansPhoneticians are interested in the are interested in the differencesdifferences(perception)(perception) between the between the two and the differences in the way two and the

10、differences in the way they are pronouncedthey are pronounced(production).(production). PhonologistsPhonologists arent concerned with arent concerned with those differences because they are those differences because they are purely result of the physical purely result of the physical properties of t

11、he system, but the properties of the system, but the patterning of such sounds and the patterning of such sounds and the rules that underlie such variations.rules that underlie such variations. PhonologistsPhonologists attempt to found attempt to found out the rule governing the out the rule governi

12、ng the occurance of occurance of clearl & Dark:They do not occur at random in english; their distribution follows a nicely complemetary pattern:Use clearl before vowelUse Dark at the end of a word after a vowel or before a consonantPhonetics & phonologyPhonetics & phonologyPhoneticsPhone

13、ticsPhonologyPhonologyAll possible Speech Sounds of languagesPatterning of sounds as part of a certain languageUniversalLanguage-specificParole, speech actLangue, language systemConcreteAbstractPhone Phoneme / / Phonology studies the sound patterns and sound systems of a particular languages; it aim

14、s to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. 1 Definition of Phonology How to do phonology? Found out patterning of sounds Found out patterning of sounds and the rules that govern the the and the rules that g

15、overn the the patterns.patterns. How?How? Phone, phoneme, allophonePhone, phoneme, allophoneHow to do phonetics? PhonePhone: the departure of : the departure of phoneticsphonetics PhonemePhoneme: the departure of : the departure of phonologyphonologyHow to do phonology?Phone, phoneme, allophone Ques

16、tion: Do the underlined letters or letter combinations in each group share the same pronunciation?1. scar class skin kiss cocktail factory2. spit pity stop talking3. lead milk4. pet pen5. stop top get to eighth1. /k/1. k k k k k k4. e4. e 5. t t t 2. p p p3. l 2. /p/3. /l/4. /e/5. /t/Phonephonemeall

17、ophonePhone音素音素 a basic, minimal identifiable phonetic unit or sound segment that human vocal organs can produce. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. Phone音素音素 Phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning, some do, some dont. Usually phones of Usual

18、ly phones of different different phonemesphonemes distinguish distinguish meaning. meaning. 音素是語音學研究的單位。人類在音素是語音學研究的單位。人類在說語言時所發出的一切音都是音素說語言時所發出的一切音都是音素，有些音素具有語義區別性價值，有些音素具有語義區別性價值，有些音素沒有。有些音素沒有。Phone音素音素 s/t: seem/team si:m/ ti:m i: /i: beat/bit bi:t / bit t/ t=: stop st= p /stp p /p: spit spit / s

19、pit.differentsame phones are placed within square brackets “ ” (phonetic transcription音素轉寫音素轉寫)Phoneme音位音位1. The basic, minimal phonological unit音系學研究的基本單位音系學研究的基本單位2. an unit that is of distinctive value. It can distinguish meaning.音位具有區別性價值音位具有區別性價值Change the phoneme /p/ in Change the phoneme /p/

20、in pigpig into phoneme /b/, then we get into phoneme /b/, then we get bigbig. .3 an abstract unit, an collection of phonetic features. It is not any particular sound that we can hear, but rather its represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. 音位不是一個具體的、聽得到的聲音，音位不是一個具體的、

21、聽得到的聲音，而是一個抽象的概念，是一組語音特征而是一個抽象的概念，是一組語音特征的集合。在特定語音環境里的體現為一的集合。在特定語音環境里的體現為一個特定的語音或音素。個特定的語音或音素。 spit pity stop talking top p p p p/p/ is the collection of three features: bilabial, plosive, voicedPhonephonemeBut how is this phoneme realized in phone?It is determined by linguistic context. The phonem

22、e /t/ stp thp /p/ pit, tip and spit. The phones p and b are the phonetic realization of the phoneme /p/ and /b/ in pit and bit.4. Phonemes are placed in slashes “/ / ” (phonemic transcriptions音位轉寫音位轉寫represent the broad transcriptions.Allophone音位變體音位變體 Actual realizations of a Actual realizations of

23、 a phoneme in different phonetic phoneme in different phonetic context. context. the different phones or variants the different phones or variants of a phoneme in different of a phoneme in different phonetic context. phonetic context. 一個音位在特定的語音環境里的具體體現為一個音位在特定的語音環境里的具體體現為某一個語音，同一個音位在不同的語音環境某一個語音，同一

24、個音位在不同的語音環境里體現為不同的語音，這些語音稱為這個音里體現為不同的語音，這些語音稱為這個音位的音位變體位的音位變體. .1. scar class skin kiss cocktail factory2. spit pity stop talking3. lead milk4. pet pen5. stop top get to eighth1. /k/1. k k k k k k4. e4. e 5. t t t 2. p p p3. l 2. /p/3. /l/4. /e/5. /t/PhonephonemeallophoneAn analogy for better unders

25、tanding Peter ParkerIn case of emergencyDating with his girlfriend, doing his work, etc.Which is the phoneme, Spiderman or Peter Parker?In our mind, there is a man who combines the two, and the combination living in our mind is the phoneme.allophoneallophoneThe “mental” man=The phonemeSpiderman One

26、phoneme may have several allophones, but the choice of an allophone is rule-governed. These rules are to be found out by a phonologist.How to do phonology? Phoneme: the departure of Phoneme: the departure of phonologyphonology To identify the phoneme of a To identify the phoneme of a language is the

27、 first task.language is the first task. Phonemic contrast音位對立音位對立 Complementary distribution互補分布互補分布 Minimal pair最小對立體最小對立體 Free variation自由變體自由變體identify phoneme Find out the minial pair. How ? Phonological anaysis relies on the pinciple that certain sounds cause changes in the meaning of a word,wh

28、ereras others do not. Taking a word, if substituting one sound for another result in a change of meaning,the two sounds then represent different phonemes. Look at the picture and try and pronounce the words in it. di /fi di /fi dain /faindain /fainFish!Dish!Dine?Fine! when two different forms are id

29、entical (the same) in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sound combinations （words）are said to form a minimal pair. beat-bit.Minimal pair最小對立體最小對立體Three requirements1)the same number of segments;2)one phonetic difference in the same place;3)

30、different meaninglit-lip; phone-tone; pill-billbeat, bit, bet, boot, but, bite(minimal pairs)(a minimal set)The different phonemes in a minimal pair can be consonants and vowelswhen a group of words can been differentiated each one from the others by changing one phoneme, then we have a minimal set.

31、最小對立組最小對立組Some of the minimal pairs for English phonemes: vowelsMinimal setSome of the minimal pairs for English phonemes: consonantsMinimal setMinimal pairs in Chinese “你的牙是金色的！你的牙是金色的！”跳跳差異地說。跳跳差異地說。 “四（四（是是）啊，很酷吧）啊，很酷吧? ?介四（介四（這是這是）我）我幾己（幾己（自自己）裝的。可惜，裝了金牙以后己）裝的。可惜，裝了金牙以后說梭話（說梭話（說話說話）就變成這樣了。）就變成這樣

32、了。” “ “我資道（我資道（知知道）你的意思。道）你的意思。” 我聽粗來了（出來），你梭話（我聽粗來了（出來），你梭話（說話說話）也）也不太準，四不四（不太準，四不四（是不是是不是）？）？ 四（四（是是）啊，我昨天把牙此（）啊，我昨天把牙此（牙齒牙齒）磕斷）磕斷了。了。Phonemic contrast音位對立音位對立Phonemic contrast refers to the relation between two phonemes. If two phonemes can occur in the same environment and distinguish meaning, t

33、hey are in phonemic contrast. If the phonetically similar sounds are two distinctive phonemes, they are said to form a phonemic contrast. 如果兩個音位可以出現在相同的語音環境中如果兩個音位可以出現在相同的語音環境中，且具有區別語義的功能，那么他們就形成了，且具有區別語義的功能，那么他們就形成了音位對立。音位對立。 Minimal sets 來，乃，才，戴，外，愛，太，壞，來，乃，才，戴，外，愛，太，壞，敗敗Minimal pairs 來，乃來，乃 開，該開，

34、該 吃，之吃，之 配，被配，被Phonemic contrast音位對立音位對立 /p/ & /b/ in /p/ & /b/ in pit/ bit, rope pit/ bit, rope /robe/,pin /bin /robe/,pin /bin are in phonemic are in phonemic contrast.contrast.Some of the minimal pairs for English phonemes: consonants and vowelPhonemic contrastComplementary distribution1)

35、allophones of the same phoneme are in complementary distribution. dark & clear l aspirated ph & unaspirated p= are in complementary distribution. 2)They do not distinguish meaning. 3)They occur in different phonetic contexts /l/ l/ v /v /p/ p=/s phelsewhere Free variation If two sounds occur

36、ing in the same If two sounds occuring in the same envrionment do not contrast; envrionment do not contrast; namely, if the substitition of one for namely, if the substitition of one for the other does not generate a new the other does not generate a new word form but merely a different word form bu

37、t merely a different pronunciation of the same word(the pronunciation of the same word(the same word pronunced in different same word pronunced in different way), the two sounds then are said way), the two sounds then are said to be in “free variation.” The one to be in “free variation.” The one sou

38、nd can be called the “free sound can be called the “free variant ” of the other.variant ” of the other.1.1. By dialect, habit, individual By dialect, habit, individual prefernceprefernce instead of by any instead of by any distribution rules.distribution rules.Cup:Cup: kpp & k pp 2. By regional

39、difference2. By regional difference either, direction, garage, either, direction, garage, In fact, no person pronounces In fact, no person pronounces the same phone exactly the the same phone exactly the same if it is done two or more same if it is done two or more times. English is spoken by times.

40、 English is spoken by millions of millions of people millions of millions of people in different country, all in free in different country, all in free variation.variation. Phonemic contrast: the relation the relation between two phonemesbetween two phonemes Complementary distribution: the relation

41、among allophones of the same phoneme minimal pair: the relation between words of similar formation and soundSome rules in phonology How to do phonology?How to do phonology? Phoneme: the departure of phonologyPhoneme: the departure of phonology to identify the phoneme: the first taskto identify the p

42、honeme: the first task To find out in what way the phonemes To find out in what way the phonemes can be combined is the second task.can be combined is the second task.Rules Some rules in phonology Sequential rules Deletion rulesSequential rules（序列規則）（序列規則） The rules that gover the The rules that gov

43、er the combination of sound in a combination of sound in a particular particular language are called language are called sequentialsequential rulesrules. It is language-. It is language-specificspecific A A sound-patterning rule sound-patterning rule or or phonological rulephonological rule that tha

44、t determines which phonemes can determines which phonemes can beginbegin a word, a word, endend a word, and a word, and followfollow each other. each other. k k b l b l i i blik, klib, bilk, kilb (possible blik, klib, bilk, kilb (possible words in English)words in English) Lbki, ilbk, ilkb (impossib

45、le Lbki, ilbk, ilkb (impossible words in English)words in English)Rules1.1. l, r must be followed by l, r must be followed by vowels.vowels. Lbki, ilbk, ilkb Lbki, ilbk, ilkb 2.2. A Affricatesffricates t, dt, d （塞擦音）（塞擦音）, , and and sibilantssibilantss,s, z, , z, , （咝（咝擦音）擦音）are not to be followed b

46、y are not to be followed by another sibilant. another sibilant. teach teachesteach teaches ooze oozesooze oozes kiss kisseskiss kisses3.3. If three consonants should If three consonants should cluster together at the cluster together at the beginning of a word, the beginning of a word, the combinati

47、on should obey the combination should obey the following three rules:following three rules:(1) T(1) The first phoneme is she first phoneme is s(2) T(2) The second phoneme is p, t he second phoneme is p, t or kor k(3) T(3) The third phoneme is l, r, he third phoneme is l, r, ww s spring strict square

48、pring strict square splendid scream splendid screamThe syllable structure Syllable: rhyme/ rime and Syllable: rhyme/ rime and onsetonset The vowel within the rhyme is The vowel within the rhyme is the nucleusthe nucleus The consonants after it will be The consonants after it will be termed codaterme

49、d codaSyllable structureSyllableSyllableOnsetOnset節首輔音節首輔音 rhymerhyme韻基韻基 Nucleus coda Nucleus coda結尾音節結尾音節K l a s pK l a s p All syllables must have All syllables must have nucleus but not all syllables nucleus but not all syllables contain an onset and a coda.contain an onset and a coda. A syllabl

50、e with no coda is A syllable with no coda is called an open syllable.called an open syllable. A syllable with coda is called A syllable with coda is called closed syllable.closed syllable. In english the onset position In english the onset position may be empty or filled by a may be empty or filled

51、by a cluster of as many as three cluster of as many as three consonants.consonants. the coda position may be the coda position may be filled by as many as four filled by as many as four consonants. consonants. SixthsSixthscccvcccccccvccccSonority scale響音節響音節 In English consonant clusters in In Engli

52、sh consonant clusters in onset and coda positions onset and coda positions disallow many consonant disallow many consonant combinition because of combinition because of sonority sonority scale. scale. The dgree of sonority of The dgree of sonority of different classes of sound different classes of s

53、ound affects their possible positions affects their possible positions in the syllablein the syllablesonority scale most sonorious most sonorious 5 vowels5 vowels 4 approximants, w,j,r, l 4 approximants, w,j,r, l 3 nasal 3 nasal 2 fricative 2 fricative Least sonorious Least sonorious 1 stops 1 stops

54、clasp * *元音元音 * *通音通音 * *摩擦音摩擦音 * * k l a s p l k a p s k l a s p l k a p s 5 5 4 4 3 3 2 2 1 1*爆破音爆破音*Possible words:bilk,klib,bilk,kilb * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * b i l k k i I b b i l k k i l bb i l k k i I b b i l k k i l b 5 5 4 4 3 3 2 2 1 1Impossible words

55、: lbki,ilbk,bkil,ilkb * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * l b k i i l b k b k i l i l k b l b k i i l b k b k i l i l k b 5 5 4 4 3 3 2 2 1 1 The phoneme /s/ behaves The phoneme /s/ behaves unusually in that it can unusually in that it can combine with almost any combine

56、with almost any onset to form a cluster of up onset to form a cluster of up tp three consonabts.tp three consonabts. spl-, spr-, str-, skwspl-, spr-, str-, skw Speech is a continuous process, so the vocal organs do not move from one sound segment to the next in a series of separate steps. Rather, so

57、unds continually show the influence of their neighbors. The vowel / / is nasalized because of the influence of the following nasal consonantn.The alveolar nasal /n/ becomes the velar nasal before the velar stop k.1)a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighborin

58、g sound, which includes nasalization, dentalization and velarization.（一個音具有了領音的一部（一個音具有了領音的一部分或全部特征）分或全部特征）2)Assimulation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar.Ease of articulationSloppy tendencyLaziness 3)3)a phonolo

59、gical terma phonological term, often , often used synonymously with used synonymously with coarticulation coarticulation 協同發音協同發音,which ,which is more of a phonetic term.is more of a phonetic term.prefix: in- Sound assimilation reflected Sound assimilation reflected in pronuncition:in pronuncition:

60、IndIndiscreet, indistinct indiscreet, indistinct ind IncIncorrect orrect n :n : Alveolar nasalAlveolar stopsAlveolar nasaln :n :Alveolar nasalveolar stopsveolar nasalprefix: in- Sound assimilation reflected Sound assimilation reflected in spelling:in spelling: InpInpossible ossible impimpossibleossible InlInlegal egal illillegalegal InrInrelevant eleva