1、ChapterIntroduction1. What is linguistics? Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2. The scope of linguistics:(1 ). phonetics 語音學 ； phonology 音位學； morphology 形態學； syntax 句法學； pragmatics 語用學(2) . sociolinguistics 社會語言學； psycholinguistics 心理語言學；applied linguistics 應用語言學3.

2、 Some important distinction in linguistics(1) Descriptive vs. prescriptive 描述性與規定性 If a linguistics study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive; If the linguistics study aims to lay down rules for ” correct and standard ” behavior in using langua

3、ge, i.e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.(2)Synchronic vs. diachronic 共時性與歷時性 A synchronic description takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present) as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind. Diachr

4、onic linguistics is the study of a language through the course of its history.(2) Langue & parole 語言與會話 Language refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community. Parole refers to the realization of language in actual use.(4)Competence and performance 語言能力

5、與語言運用 A language user's unconscious knowledge about the system of rules is called his linguistic competence. Performance refers to the actual use of language in concrete situations.(5)speech and writing 語言與文字Speech and writing are the two major media of communication.(6)traditional grammar and m

6、odern linguistic 傳統語法與現代語言學4. Definition of language:Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Language is a system, i.e., elements of language are combined according to rules.Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a lingui

7、stics symbol and what the symbol stands.Language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound.The term “ human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human-specific.5. Design features of language6. (1) Arbitrariness 任意性refers to the forms of linguistic signs bear n

8、o natural relationship to theirmeaning. (sounds and meanings)(2) Productivity(creativity) 能產性 Language is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.(3) duality 雙重性 The property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the prima

9、ry level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.(4) displacement 移位性 Human Languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at moment of communication.(5)cultura

10、l transmission 文化傳承性7. Functions of language(1) referential (to convey message and information),(2) poetic (to indulge in language for its own sake),(3) emotive (to express attitudes, feelings and emotions),(4) conative (to persuade and influence others through commands and requests),(5) phatic (to

11、establish communion with others)(6) metalingual (to clear up intentions and meanings). Informative( 信息功能 ): to give information about facts. (ideational) Interpersonal( 人際功能 ): to establish and maintain social status in a society.(age, sex, language, background, accent, status) Performative( 施為功能 )

12、: language is used to do things, to perform certain actions. (name, promise, apologize, sorry, declare) . Emotive/Expressive ( 情感功能 ): to express feelings and attitudes of the speaker. Phatic communion( 寒暄交流 ) : to use small and meaningless expressions to establish a comfortable relationship or main

13、tain social contact between people without any factual content. (health, weather) Recreational function( 娛樂 ): the use of language for sheer joy. (lyrics, poetry) Metalingual function( 元語言功能): to talk about language itself.Chapter 2 Phonology1. Phonetics (語音學) is the study of the phonic medium of la

14、nguage; it is concerned with all the soundsthat occur in the worlds la nPghuoangeetiscs studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, andperceived.2. Orthographic representation of speech sounds ：broad transcription (寬式標音) and narrow transcription (嚴式標音)A broad transcription (寬式標音) is the tra

15、nscription with letter-symbols only.A narrow transcription (嚴式標音) is a transcription with letter symbols together with diacritics.3. Phonology (音位學) is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages.4. The differences between phonetics and phonology: (語音的正字表征) Both are concerned with

16、 the same aspect of languagethe speech sounds. But they differ in theirapproach and focus. Phonetics is of general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages; it aims to answer questions like: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic fe

17、atures they have, how they can be classified, etc. Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.5. Phone (音素) , phoneme (音位) , allophone (音位變體)A phone a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds

18、 we hear and produce during linguisticcommunication are all phones.A phonemeis a phonological unit; it is a unit of distinctive value; an abstract unit, not a particularsound, but it is represented by a certain phone in certain phonetic context6. Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution and min

19、imal pair. （音位對立， 互補分布， 最小對立體）7. Some rules of phonology （音位學規則）Sequential rules 序列規則 Assimilation rule 同化規則 Deletion rule 省略規則8. Suprasegmental features （超音段特征）： stress 重音， tone 音調， intonation 語調Chapter 3 Morphology1. Classification of words（ 1） Variable vs. invariable words: 可變詞類和不可變詞類Variable wor

20、ds: One could find ordered and regular series of grammatically different word forms; on the other hand, part of the word remains constant follow, follows, following, followed; mat, mats Invariable words: those words such as since, when, seldom, through, hello . They do not have inflective endings.（

21、2） Grammatical words vs. lexical words: 語法詞類和詞匯詞類Grammatical words: express grammatical meanings, such as conjunctions, prepositions, articles, pronounsLexical words: have lexical meanings, those which refer to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.（ 3） Closed-

22、class words vs. open-class words: 封閉詞類和開放詞類Closed-class: a word whose membership is fixed or limited. New members are not regularly added. Pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc.Open-class: A word whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. Nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbsG

23、rammatical-lexical wordsclosed-class-open-class words2. Morphere（ 詞素 ） ： the minimal meaningful unit of language.3. Linguistics use the term morphology to refer the part of the grammar that is concerned with word formation and word structure.4. Free morpheme & bound morpheme（ 自由語素和黏著語素）A morphem

24、e which can be a word by itself is called a free morpheme; a morpheme that must be attached to another one is a bound morpheme.5. The variant forms of a morpheme are called its allomorphs.（詞素變體）6. Inflectional affix & derivational affix （屈折詞綴和派生詞綴）7. Compound : those words that consist of more t

25、han one freemorphemes,the way to jointwo separatewords to produce a single form. In compounds, the lexical morphemescan beof different wordclasses.8. Compounds can be further divided into two kinds:the endocentric compound （ 向心復合詞） the exocentric compound（ 離心復合詞）9. Endocentric: one element serves as

26、 the head, the relationship ofs“elfa-ckointdrool:f a ki”nd;oefgcontrol armchair: a kind of chair10. Exocentric: there is no head, so not a relationship of “ a kind of something ” s,caergecrow: not a kind of crow breakneck: not a kind of neckChapter 4 Syntax1. What is Syntax （句法） ?Syntax is the study

27、 of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences.句法就是研究語言的不同成分組成句子的規則2. Syntactic relations can be analyzed into three kinds:relations of position位置關系relations of substitutability替代關系relations of co-occurrence同現關系Chapter 5 Semantics1. What is Semantics?Semantics

28、 is the study of the meaning of words, phrases and sentences.語義學是研究單詞、短語和句子的意義的學科2. The conceptualist view The conceptualist view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to (i.e. between language and the real world); rather, in the interpretation of meaning th

29、ey are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind. This is 川ustrated by the classic semantic triangle or triangle of significance suggested by Ogden and Richard.Thought/reference/conceptSymbol/form不referencentword/phrase/sentence The symbol or form refers to the linguistic elements (words

30、and phrases);The referent refers to the object in the world of experience;Thought or reference refers to concept.The symbol or a word signifies things by virtue of the concept associated with the form of the word in the minds of the speaker; and the concept looked at from this point of view is the m

31、eaning of the word.3. The contextualismMeaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context elements closely linked with language behavior. Two types of contexts are recognized:Situational context: spatiotemporal situationLinguistic context: the probability of a word -occurrence 'oracoo

32、ocation.4. BehaviorismBehaviorists attempted to define meaning as the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer".5. Lexical meaningSense and reference are both concerned with the study of word meaning. They are two related but different aspects of meaning