1、胡壯翳語言學教程課后答案胡壯語言學教程課后答案1 Design feature:are features that define our human Ianguages,such asarbitrariness,duality,creativity,displacement,cultural transmission,etc.2. Function: the use of language tocommunicate,to think zetc.Language functions include imformative fun ctionjnterperso nal functi on .p

2、erformative functionjnterpers on al functio n, performative function,emotive functionzphatic communionzrecreational function and metalingual function.3. etic: a term in contrast with emic which originates from American linguist Pikes distinction ofphonetics and phonemics.Being etic mans making far t

3、oo many, as well as behaviouslyinconsequential,differentiations,just as was ofter the case with phonetic vx.phonemic analysis in linguistics proper.4. emic: a term in contrast with etic which originates from American linguist Pikes distinct!on of phonetics and phonemics.An emic set of speech acts an

4、d events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech communith rather than via qppeal to the investigators ingen uith or in tuition alone 5. synchronic: a kind of description which takes a fixed instant(usually,but not necessarily,thepresent),as i

5、ts point of observation.Most grammars are of this kind.6. diachronic:study of a Ianguage is carried through the course of its history.7. prescriptive: the study of a language is carried through the course of its history.8. prescriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are prescribed how o

6、ught to bej.eaying down rules for language use.9. descriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are just described10. arbitrariness: one design feature of human Ianguage,which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear no n atural relati on ship to their meaning 11. duality

7、: one design feature of human language,which refers to the property of having two levels of are composed of elements of the secondaryevel and each of the two levels has its own principles of organizatio n.12. displacement: one design feature of human language.which means human Ianguage enable their

8、users to symbolize objectszevents and concepts which are not present c in time and space,at the moment of communication.13. phatic communion: one function of human language,which refers to the social interaction of language 14. metalanguage: certain kinds of linguistic signs or terms for the analysi

9、s and description of particular studies15. macrolinguistics: he interacting study between language and language-related disciplines such as psychology,sociology.ethnograph,scienee of law and artificial intelligence etc.Branches of macrolinguistics in dude psycholinguistics,sociolinguistics, an throp

10、ological li nguistics,et16. competence: Ianguage users underlying knowledge about the system of rules17. performance: the actual use of language in con Crete situatio n.18. langue: the linguistic competence of the speaker.19. parole: the actual phe no me na or data of linguistics(utterances)20 Artic

11、ulatory phonetics : the study of production of speechsounds21 Coarticulation : a kind of phonetic process in which simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved.Coarticulation can be further divided into anticipatory coarticulation and perseverative coarticulatio n.22 Voicing: pronouncing a

12、 sound (usually a vowel or a voiced consonant) by vibrating the vocal cords.23 Broad and narrow transcription : the use of a simple set of symbols in transcript!on is called broad transcription;the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called broadtranscription;while，the use of more spe

13、cific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as narrow transcriptio n.24 Consonant: are sound segments produced by constrict!ng or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divertzimpede,or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity25 Phoneme: the abstract element of soun

14、d, identified as being distinctive in a particular language 26 Allophone:any of the different forms of a phoneme(eg.is an allophone of /t/in English.When /t/occurs in words like stepjt is unaspirated.Bothand are allophones of the phoneme/t/ 27 Vowl:are sound segments produced without such obstruct!o

15、n,so no turbulenee of a total stopping of the air can be perceived28 Manner of articulation : in the production of consonants,manner of articulation refers to the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract.29.Place o

16、f articulation: in the production of consonants,place of articulation refers to where in the vocal tract there is approximation,narrowing,or the obstruction of air.30 Distinctive features : a term of phonologyj.e.a property which distinguishes one phoneme from another.31 Complementary distribution:

17、the relation between tow speech sounds that never occur in the same environment.Allophones of the same phoneme are usually in complementary distribution.32 IPA: the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet,which is devised by the International Phonetic Association in 1888 then it has undergon

18、g a number of revisions.IPA is a comprised system employing symbols of all sources,such as Roman small lettersjtalics uprighted.obsolete letterszGreek letters,diacriticetc 33 Suprasegmental:suprasegmental featuresare those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments.The principal

19、supra-segmental features aresyllable,stress,toneand intonation.34 Suprasegmental: aspects of speech that involve more tha n angle sou nd segme nts.The principle suprasegmental features are syllable,stress,tone.and intonation.35. morpheme:the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between

20、 expression and content,a unit that cannot be divided into further small units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning,whether it is lexical or grammatical.36. coinpoundoly morphemic words which consist wholly of free morphemes,such asclassroom,blackboards no wwhite,etc 37.inflection:

21、 the manifestation of grammatical relationship through the addition of inflectional affixes,such as number,person.finiteness,aspect and case,which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached38. affix: the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only

22、 when added to another morpheme(the root or stem).39. derivation: different from compoundszderivation shows the relation between roots and affixes40. root: the base from of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total lass of identity41. allomorph: any of the different form of a morpheme.For

23、 examplejn English the plural mortheme is but it is pronounced differently in different environments as/s/in cats,as/z/ in dogs and as/iz/ in classes.So/s/,/z/,and /iz/ are all allomorphs of the plural morpheme42.Stem: any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be ad

24、ded43. bound morpheme: an element of meaning which is structurally dependent on the world it is added toze.g the plural morpheme in dogs.44. free morpheme: an element of meaning which takes the form of an independent word.45exeme:A separate unit of meanin g,usually in the form of a word(e.g./zdog in

25、 the man ger)46exicon: a list of all the words in a language assigned to various lexical categories and provided with semantic interpretation47. grammatical word: word expres引ng grammatical meanings,suchconjunction,prepositions,articles and pronouns.48. lexical word: word having lexical meaningsztha

26、t is .those which refer to substanee,action and quality,such as nouns,verbs,adjectives刁nd verbs49. open-class: a word whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited,such asno uns,verbs,adjectives,a nd many adverbs 50. blending: a relatively complex form of compoundingn which two words are bl

27、ended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word,or by joining the initial parts of the two words.51. loanvoord: a process in which both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slight adaptation n some cases,to eh phono logical system of the new Ian guage t

28、hat they enter. 52.loanblend: a process in which part of the form is native and part is borrowed, but the meaning is fully borrowed53. leanshift: a process in which the meaning is borrowed,but the form is native54. acronym: is made up form the first letters of the name of an organization,which has a

29、 heavily modified headword 55oss: the disappearanee of the very sound as a morpheme in the phonological system56. back-fonnation: an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a long form already in the language57. assimilation: the change of a

30、 sound as a result of the influence of an adjace nt sou nd, which is more specifically called.contactorcontiguousassimilation.58. dissimilation: the in fluence exercised.By one sound segment upon the articulation of ano ther, so that the sounds become less alike,or different.59. folk etymology: a ch

31、ange in form of a word or phrasezresulting from an incorrect popular nation of the origin or meaning of the term or from the influence of more familiar terms mistakenly taken to be analogous60. category:parts of speech and function,such as the classification of words in terms of parts of speech,the

32、identification of terms of parts of speech,the identification of functions of words in term of subjectzpredicatezetc 61. concord: also known as agreementjs the requirement that the forms of two or more words in a syntactic relationship should agree with each other in terms of some categories62. synt

33、agmatic relation between one item and others in a sequenee,or between elements which are all present.63. paradigmatic relation: a relation holding between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in a structurezor between one element present and he others absent. 64.immediate const

34、ituent analysis: the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituentsword groups(or phrases),which are in trun analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own,and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached65. endocentric construction: one construct! on whose d

35、istributi on is functi on ally equivalent, or approaching equivalence,to one of its constituents,which serves as the centrezor head, of the whole.Hence an endocentric construction is also known as a headed construction.66. exocentric construction: a construction whose distribution is not functionall

36、y equivalent to any to any of its constituents.67. deep structure: the abstract representation of the syntactic properties of a construction,i.e.the underlying level of structural relations between its different constituents ,such sa the relation between,the underlying subject and its verbzor a verb

37、 and its object.68. surfacte structure: the final stage in the syntactic derivation of a construction,which closely corresponds to the structural organization of a construction people actually produce and receive69. c-command: one of the similarities of the more general features, in these two govern

38、ment relationsjs technically called constituent command.ccommand for short70. govemment and binding theory: it is the fourth period of development Chomskys TGGrammar, which consists of X-bar theme: the basis,or the starting pointzof the utterance71. communicative dynamism: the extent to which the se

39、n tence eleme nt con tributes to the development of the communication.72. ideational function: the speakers experience of the real worldjncluding the inner world of his own consciousness73. interpersonal function: the use of language to establish and maintain social relations: for the expression of

40、social roles,which include the commu nication roles created by Ian guage itself; a nd also for getting things done,by mea ns of the in teraction betwee n one perso n and another.74. textual function: the use of language the provide for making links with itself and with features of the situation in w

41、hich it is used75. conceptual meaning: the central part of meaning, which contains logical,cognitive,or denotative content 76. denotation: the core sense of a word or a phrade that relates it to phenomena in the real world.77. connotation: a term in a contrast with denotation,meaning the properties

42、of the entity a word denotes 78. reference: the use of language to express a propostion,meaning the properties of the entity a word denotes.79. reference: the use of anguage to express a propositi onj.e. to talk about things in con text SO.sense: the literal meaning of a word or an expression,indepe

43、ndent of situational context81. synonymy: is the technical name for the sameness relation.82. complentary antonymy: members of a pair in complementary antonymy are complementary to each field completelyzsuch as male,female,absent83. gradable antongymy: members of this kind are gradable,such as long:

44、short,big;small,fat; thin,etc.84. converse antonymy: a special kind of antonymy in that memembers of a pair do not constitute a positive-negative opposition,such as buy;sellend,borrow,above,below,etc85. relational opposites:converse antonymy in reciprocal social roles,kinship relations,temporal and

45、spatial relations.There are always two entities involved.one presupposes the other. The shorterzbetter;worse.etc are instances of relational opposites86. hyponymy: a relation between tow wordsjn which the meaning of one word(the superordinate)is included in the meaning of another word(the hyponym)87

46、. superordinate: the upper term in hyponymyj.e.the class name.A superordinate usually has several hyponyms.Under animaljor examplezthere are cats,dogs,pigs,etc,88. semantic component: a distinguishable element of meaning in a word with two valuesze.g+huma89. compositionality: a principle for sente n

47、ee an alysis, in which the meaning of a sentence depends on the meanings of the constituent words and the way they are combined90. selection restrlction:semantic restrict!ons of the noun phrases that a particular lexical item can take,e.g.regret requires a human subject.91. prepositional logic: also

48、 known as prepo引tional calculus or sentential calculuses the study of the truth conditions for propositions: how the truth of a composite propositions and the connection between them92. proposition;what is talk about in an utterance,that part of the speech act which has to do with reference.93. pred

49、icate logic: also predicate calculus,which studies the internal structure of simple.94. assimilation theory: language(sound,word,syntax,etc)change or process by which features of one element change to match those of another that precedes or follows95. cohort theory: theory of the perception of spoke

50、n words proposed in the midl980s.lt saaumes a recognition lexiconSn which each word is represented by a full and independentrecognistion element. Whe n the system receives the begi nning of a relevant acoustic sign al,all elements matching it are fully acticated,and,as more of the signal is received

51、,the system tries to match it independently with each of them,Wherever it fails the element is deactivated;this process continues until only one remains active96. context effect: this effect help people recognize a word more readily when the receding words provide an appropriate context for it.97. f

52、requency effect: describes the additional ease with which a word is accessed due to its more frequent usage in language98. inference in context: any con clusi on draw n from a set of propositi on,from something someone has said,and so on.lt includes things thatzwhile not following logically,are impl

53、ied,!n an ordinarysenseze.g.in a specific context.99. immediate assumption: the reader is supposed to carry out the progresses required to understand each word and its relati on ship to previous words in the sentence as soon as that word in encou ntered.100.1anguage perception:language awareness of

54、things through the physical senses,esp,sight.101.language comprehension: one of the three strand of psycholinguistic research,which studies the understanding of language102 Ianguage production: a goal-directed activetyjn the sense that people speak and write in orde to make friendsj nflue nee people

55、,c on vey in formation and so on.103 Ianguage production: a goal-directed activity,!n the sense that people speak and write in order to make friendsjnfluenee people,concey information and so on.104.1exical ambiguity:ambiguity explained by referenee to lexical meanings:e.g.that of I saw abat,where a

56、bat might refer to an animal or,among otherszstable tennis bat.105 n】acropoposition:general propositions used to form an overall macrostructure of the story 106.modular:which a assumes that the mind is structuied into separate modules or comp on ents,each gover ned by its own principles and operatin

57、g in depe ndently of others 107 parsing:the task of assigning words to parts of speech with their appropriateaccidents,traditionally e.g.to pupils learning lat in grammar.10& propositions:whatever is seen as expressed by a sente nee which makes a stateme nt. It is a property of propositions that the

58、y have truth values109 psycholinguistics: is concerned primarily with investigating the psychological reality of linguistic structure.Psycholinguistics can be divided into cognitive psycholing uistics(being concerned above all with making inferences about the content of human mind,and experimental psycholinguistics(being concerned somehow whth empirical matters,such as speed of response to a particular word).110. psycholinguistic reality: the reality of grammarzetc.as a purported account of structure