英漢語言差異三Hypotactic vs paratactic（形合與意合）“就漢語和英語而言，也許在語言上最重要的一個區(qū)別就是形合與意合的對比（contrast between hypotaxis and parataxis）。”奈達(dá)Translating MeaningHypotactic-the dependent or subordinate construction or relationship of clauses with connectives, for example, “Is she unhappy if you dont come” （復(fù)句中成分之間的關(guān)系用一種公式，即連接詞來連接）英語語言學(xué)詞匯對形合（hypotaxis）的釋義為：“復(fù)句中同等句或從屬句之間需要一種方式表達(dá)它們之間的句法關(guān)系。”這里所謂“一種方式”是指使用功能詞（function word）加以“明示”的句法方式，如and, but, if, when等和某些特定的短語。這些功能詞語表示不同的功能或意念，如因果、比較、轉(zhuǎn)折、讓步、條件等。The American Heritage Dictionary中對形合定義為：“The dependent or subordinate construction or relationship of clauses with connectives, for example, I shall despair if you dont come.”Paratactic-The arraging of clauses one after another without connectives showing the logical relation between them. (分句與分句之間不用連接詞來表示相互之間的邏輯關(guān)系).詞匯一書對意合（parataxis）的釋義為：“分句中間不用連詞”，即指句與句之間的種種邏輯關(guān)系“隱含”于上下文之中。TheWorld Book Dictionary中對意合定義為：“The arranging of clauses one after the other without connectives showing the relation between them.Example: The rain fell; the river flooded; the house washed away.”English tends to be hypotactic while Chinese tends to be paratactic. We should remember the tendency in the two languages is relative not absolute. The structure of English is compared to a tree with various branches on different levels, while Chinese is compared to a bamboo with one part after another.e.g. It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us: that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they gave the last full measure of devotion; that we here highly revolve that these dead shall not have died in vain; that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom; and that government of the people, by the people, and for the people, shall not perish from the earth. (Abraham Lincoln, The Gettysburg Address )We should live each day with gentleness, a vigor, and a keenness or appreciation which are often lost when time stretches before us in the constant panorama of more days and months and years to come.(Three Days to See)兩種特征形成的效果是，英語結(jié)構(gòu)緊湊嚴(yán)密；而漢語結(jié)構(gòu)簡練明快。英語好像一棵參天大樹，一串葡萄，一串珍珠；漢語好比一根竹子，一盤珠子，一波江濤。具體說來，在英語中，主干突出，即主謂機(jī)制突出，名詞尤其是抽象名詞用得多，介詞也用得多，英語在表達(dá)復(fù)雜的思想時，往往開門見山，然后借用英語特有的詞匯關(guān)系代詞，把各個句子有機(jī)地結(jié)合起來，構(gòu)成一串串葡萄似的句子。主干可能簡單，但上面卻借著累累碩果。英語結(jié)構(gòu)緊湊嚴(yán)密，以謂語動詞為中心，各種組成部分很少省略，句際句內(nèi)之間各要素用形式邏輯關(guān)系詞連接，特別強(qiáng)凋句子成分之間的從屬、平行、修飾、對比等關(guān)系。漢語結(jié)構(gòu)簡練明快，以詞序或語義為中心，句子不一定要完整，句中各成分的相互結(jié)合多依靠語義的貫通，語境的映襯，而少用連接詞語。著名漢語學(xué)家王力教授說過：“西洋語法是硬的，沒有彈性；中國語法是軟的，富有彈性。所以中國語法以達(dá)意為主。“英國人寫文章往往化零為整，而中國人寫文章往往化整為零。”高名凱在漢語語法論中指出：漢人平常說話不喜歡用太多沒有基本意義的虛詞，只是把事情或意思排列起來，讓人們?nèi)チ私膺@兩個事情或兩個意思之間所發(fā)生的關(guān)系如何。如就地取材（先“就地”后“取材”），玩物喪志（“玩物”是因，“喪志”是果），物極必反（“物極”是條件，“必反”是結(jié)果）。句子同樣如此：The isolation of the rural world, because of distance and the lack of transport facilities, is compounded by the paucity of the information media.注：原文為典型的英語簡單句，共有九個名詞，用五個介詞連接起來，而動詞只有一個。全句只用了一個逗號和一個句號。而在譯文中，抽象名詞有的譯成動詞，有的譯成形容詞。全句用了四個逗號和一個句號。就這樣一層層、一點點地把事情交代清楚，整句語氣從容不迫，符合漢語敘事方法。遠(yuǎn)看山有色，近聽水無聲。春去花還在，人來鳥不驚。When you look afar, the mountains are green and clear,But no sound of stream is heard when listening near.The flowers remain in full bloom when springs away,A human beings approach the bird doesnt fray.注：原文在表示條件、轉(zhuǎn)折等邏輯關(guān)系時，漢語并不使用表達(dá)這種關(guān)系的詞匯，讀者一看便能領(lǐng)會。然而，英語卻不得不加上When、But之類的詞，否則，這種表達(dá)將被視為unidiomatic或unEnglish。1早知今日，何必當(dāng)初？If I had known it would come to this, I would have acteddifferently.2我們完全有信心，有能力最終接近臺灣問題。We have the determination and ability to solve the issue on Taiwan.3天氣寒冷，河水都結(jié)冰了。It was so cold that the river froze.4江山易改，本性難移。It is easy to change rivers and mountains but hard to change a persons natureIt does not do to live in memories, in regrets for the good old days，or in sadness about friends who are dead.(from How to Grow Old-Russel)為美好的往昔而遺憾，為逝去的朋友而哀傷，是沒有用的。英語中的形合法英語造句常用各種形式手段連接詞，語，分句或者從句，注重顯性接應(yīng)（overt cohesion），注重句子形式，注重結(jié)構(gòu)完整，注重以形顯意。1 關(guān)系詞：關(guān)系代詞，關(guān)系副詞，連接代詞，連接副詞連接詞：并列連詞，從屬連詞2 介詞3 形態(tài)變化 ：詞綴，性，數(shù)，格，時，體，語態(tài)，語氣，比較級，人稱，語法一致，等等.Exercise:1)It had been a fine, golden autumn, a lovely farewell to those who would lose their youth, and some of them their lives, before the leaves turned again in a peacetime fall.2) This was an intelligently organized and fervent meeting in a packed Town Hall, with Mr. Strong in the chair.3) The present onslaught of vehicles poses a serious threat to urban life and pedestrian peace of mind.1)那是個天氣晴朗，金黃可愛的秋天，美好的秋色為那些青年們送別。待到戰(zhàn)后和平時期，黃葉紛飛的秋天再度來臨時，當(dāng)日的青年已經(jīng)失去了青春，有的喪失了生命。2）這是一次精心組織起來的會議，市政廳里濟(jì)濟(jì)一堂，熱情洋溢，主持會議的是斯特朗先生。3）當(dāng)前，車輛橫沖直撞，嚴(yán)重地威脅著城市的生活，路上行人無不提心吊膽。Some fishing boats were becalmed just in front of us. Their shadows slept, or almost slept, upon the water, a gentle quivering alone showing that it was not complete sleep, or if sleep, that it was sleep with dreams.眼前不遠(yuǎn)，漁舟三五，凝滯不前，墻影斜映在水面上，仿佛睡去，偶爾微見顫動，似又未嘗熟睡，恍若驚夢。他記得破夾襖還在，便披在身上，躺到了，待張開眼睛，原來太陽又已經(jīng)照在西墻上頭了。（阿Q正傳）Remembering that he still had a ragged lined jacket, he put it on and lay down, and when he opened his eyes again the sun was already shining on the top of the west wall.有人說：有些勝利者，愿意敵人如虎，如鷹，他才感得勝利的歡喜；假使如羊，如小雞，他便反覺得勝利的無聊。（阿Q正傳）There are said to be some victors who take no pleasure in a victory unless their opponents are as fierce as tigers or eagles; if their adversaries are as timid as sheep or chickens they find their triumph empty.村外多是水田，滿眼是新秧的嫩綠，夾著幾個圓形的活動的黑點，便是耕田的農(nóng)夫。（阿Q正傳）Most of the country outside the village are paddy fields, green as far as the eye could see with the tender shoots of young rice, dotted here and there with round, black, moving objects, which were peasants cultivating the fields.我先是住在監(jiān)獄旁邊一個客店里的，初冬已經(jīng)頗冷，蚊子卻還多，后來用被蓋了全身，用衣服包了頭臉，只留兩個鼻孔出氣。（藤野先生）At first I stayed in an inn next to the gaol, where although the early winter was already quite cold, there were still a good many mosquitoes, so I learned to cover myself completely with the quilt and wrap my clothes round my head, leaving only two nostrils exposed through which to breathe.其實進(jìn)來的是一個黑瘦的先生，八字須，戴著眼鏡，挾著一迭大大小小的書。（藤野先生）There entered a dark, lean instructor with a moustache, who was wearing glasses and carrying under his arms a pile of books, large and small.每當(dāng)夜間疲倦，正想偷懶時，仰面在燈光中瞥見他黑瘦的面貌，似乎正要說出抑揚(yáng)頓挫的話來，便使我又良心發(fā)現(xiàn)，而且增加了勇氣（藤野先生）At night if I am tired and want to take it easy, when I look up and see his thin, dark face in the lamplight, as if about to speak in measured tones, my better nature asserted itself and my courage returns.他是一個高而瘦的先生，須發(fā)都花白了，還戴著大眼鏡。（從百草園到三味書屋）A thin , tall old man with a grizzled beard, he wore large spectacles.他有一條戒尺，但是不常用，也有罰跪的規(guī)則，但也不常用，普通總不過瞪幾眼，大聲道：-“讀書！”（從百草園到三味書屋）He had a ferule which he seldom used, and a method of punishing students by making them kneel which again he seldom used. In general, he simply glared round for a while and shouted: “Get on with your reading.”漢語的意合法漢語造句少用甚至不用形式連接手段，注重隱性連貫（covert coherence），注重邏輯事理順序，注重功能，意義，注重以神統(tǒng)形。1 語序1）人不犯我，我不犯人。2）打腫臉充胖子，吃虧是自己。We will not attack unless we are attacked.If you get beyond your depth, you will suffer.2 反復(fù)，排比，對偶，對照等。句式整齊勻稱，不用連詞。1）他不來，我不去。2）種瓜得瓜，種豆得豆。3）聰明一世，糊涂一時。