2016Readingcanbeasocialactivity.Thinkofthepeoplewhobelongtobookgroups.Theychoosebookstoreadandthenmeettodiscussthem.Now,thewebsite turnsthepageonthetraditionalideaofabookMembersgoonthesiteandregisterthebookstheyownandwouldliketoshare.BookCrossingprovidesanidentificationnumbertostickinsidethebook.Thenthe leavesitinapublicce,hothatthebookwillhaveanadventure,travelingfarandwidewitheachnewreaderwhofindsit.BrucePederson,themanagingdirectorofBookCrossing,says,“Thetwothingsthatchangeyourlifearethepeopleyoumeetandbooksyouread.BookCrossingcombinesboth.”Membersleavebooksonparkbenchesandbuses,intrainstationsandcoffeeshops.Whoeverfindstheirbookwillgotothesiteandrecordwheretheyfoundit.Peoplewhofindabookcanalsoleaveajournalentrydescribingwhattheythoughtofit.E-mailsarethensenttotheBookCrossingtokeepthemupdatedaboutwheretheirbookshavebeenfound.Brucepetersonsaystheideaisforpeoplenottobeselfishbykeeabooktogatherdustonashelfathome.BookCrossingispartofatrendamongpeoplewhowanttogetbacktotherealandnotthevirtual(虛擬Thesitenowhasmorethanonemillionmembersinmorethanonehundredthirty-fiveWhydoestheauthormentionbookgroupsinthefirstToexinwhattheyTointroduceTostresstheimportanceofToencouragereaderstosharetheirWhatdoestheunderlinedword“it”inParagraph2referThe B.AnC.Apublic D.TheidentificationWhatwillaBookCrosserdowithabookafterreadingMeetotherreaderstodiscuss B.KeepitsafeinhisC.Passitontoanother D.MailitbacktoitsWhatisthebesttitlefortheOnlineReading:AVirtual B.ElectronicBooks:AnewC.ABookGroupBringsTradition D.AWebsiteLinksPeoplethrough【2016·】CaliforniaCondor’sShockingCaliforniacondorsareNorthAmerica’slargestbirds,withwing-lengthofupto3meters.Inthe1980s,electricallinesandleadpoisoning(鉛)nearlydrovethemtodyingout.Now,electricshocktrainingandmedicaltreatmentareheltorescuethesebigbirds.Inthelate1980s,thelastfewcondorsweretakenfromthewild,andtherearenowmorethan150flyingoverCaliforniaandnearbyArizona,UtahandBajainMexico.Electricallineshavebeenkillingthemoff.“Astheygointorestforthenight,theyjustdon’tseethepowerlines,”saysBruceRideoutofSanDiegoZoo.Theirwingscanbridgethegapbetweenlines,resultinginelectrocution(電死)iftheytouchtwolinesatonce.Soscientistshavecomeupwithashockingidea.Tallpoles,cedinlargetrainingareas,teachthebirdsstayclearofelectricallinesbygivingthemapainfulbutundeadlyelectricshock.Beforethetrainingwasintroduced,66%ofset-dcondorsdiedofelectrocution.Thishasnowdroppedto18%.Leadpoisonoushasprovedmoredifficulttodealwith.Whencondorseatdeadbodiesofotheranimalscontaininglead,theyabsorblargetiesoflead.Thisaffectstheirnervoussystemsandabilitytoproducebabybirds,andcanleadtokidney(腎)failuresanddeath.SocondorswithhighlevelsofleadaresenttoLosAngelesZoo,wheretheyaretreatedwithcalciumEDTA,achemicalthatremovesleadfromthebloodoverseveraldays.Thisworkisstartingtopayoff.Theannualdeathrateforadultcondorshasdroppedfrom38%in2000to5.4%inRideout’steamthinksthattheCaliforniacondors’averagesurvivaltimeinthewildisnowjustundereightyears.“Althoughthesemeasuresarenoteffectiveforever,theyarevitalfornow,”hesays.“Theyaretrulygoodbirdsthatarewortheveryeffortweputintorecoveringthem.”Californiacondorsattractresearchers’interestbecausetheyareactiveathadtobebredinthearefoundoninalmostdiedoutinthe1980s64.Researchershavefoundelectricallinesare.A.blockingcondors’journeyhomebigkillersofCaliforbniarestcesforcondorsatusedtokeepcondorsAccordingtoParaghaph5,leadpoisoning.A.makescondorstoonervoustoflyB.haslittleeffectoncondors’C.canhardlybegottenridofformcondors’D.makesitdifferentforcondorstoproducebabyThepassageshowsthatA.theaveragesurvivaltimeofcondorsissatisfactoryB.Rideout’sresearchinterestliesinelectricengineeringC.theeffortstoprotectcondorshavebroughtgoodresultsD.researchershavefoundthefinalanswerstotheproblem【2016·】WhenJohnwasgrowingup,otherkidsfeltsorryforhim.Hisparentsalwayshadhimweedingthegarden,carryingoutthegarbageanddeliveringnewspapers.ButwhenJohnreachedadulthood,hewasbetteroffthanhischildhoodymates.Hehadmorejobsatisfaction,abettermarriageandwashealthier.Mostofall,hewashappier.FarThesearethefindingsofa40-yearstudythatfollowedthelivesof456teenageboysfromBoston.Thestudyshowedthatthosewhohadworkedasboysenjoyedhappierandmoreproductivelivesthanthosewhohadnot.“Boyswhoworkedinthehomeorcommunitygainedcompetence(能力)andcametofeeltheywereworthwhilemembersofsociety,”saidGeorgeVaillantthepsychologist心理學家whomadethediscoveryAndbecausetheyfeltgoodaboutthemselves,othersfeltgoodaboutVaillant’sstudyfollowedthesemalesingreatdetail.Interviewswererepeatedatages25,31and47.UnderVaillant,theresearcherscomparedthemen’smental-healthscoreswiththeirboyhood-activityscoreswiththeirboyhood-activityscores.Pointswereawardedforpart-timejobs,housework,effortinschool,andabilitytodealwithproblems.Thelinkbetweenwhatthemenhaddoneasboysandhowtheyturnedoutasadultswassurprisinglysharp.Thosewhohaddonethemostboyhoodactivitiesweretwiceaslikelytohavewarmrelationswithawidevarietyofpeople,fivetimesaslikelytobewellpaidand16timeslesslikelytohavebeenunemployed.TheresearchersalsofoundthatIQandfamilysocialandeconomicclassmadenorealdifferenceinhowtheboysturnedout.Workingatanyageisimportant.Childhoodactivitieshelpachilddevelopresponsibility,independence,confidenceandcompetencetheunderpinnings(基礎)ofemotionalhealth.Theyalsohelphimunderstandpeoplemustcooperateandworktowardcommongoals.Themostcompetentadultsarethosewhoknowhowtothis.Yetworkisn’teverything.AsTolstoyoncesaid,“Onecanlivemagnificentlyinthisworldifoneknowshowtoworkandhowtolove,toworkfortheonelovesandtoloveone’swork.”WhatdoweknowaboutHeenjoyedhiscareerandHehadfewchildhoodHereceivedlittlelovefromhisHewasenviedbyothersinhisVaillant’swordsinParagraph2serveas A.adescriptionofalvaluesandsocialB.anysisofhowworkwasrelatedtoC.anexampleforparents’expectationsoftheirD.anexnationwhysomeboysgrewintohappyVaillant’steamobtainedtheirfindingsby recordingtheboys’effortinevaluatingthemen’smentalcomparingdifferentsetsofmeasuringthemen’sproblemsolvingWhatdoestheunderlinedword“sharp”probablymeaninParagraphQuicktoHavingathinClearandsuddenandWhatcanbeinferredfromthelastcompetentadultsknowmoreaboutlovethanEmotionalhealthisessentialtoawonderfuladultLovebringsmorejoytopeoplethanworkIndependenceisthekeytoone’sAscientistworkingatherlabbenchandasix-oldbabyyingwithhisfoodmightseemtohavelittleincommon.Afterall,thescientistisengagedinseriousresearchtouncovertheverynatureofthephysicalworld,andthebabyis,well,justying…right?Perhaps,butsomedevelopmentalpsychologistshavearguedthatthis“y”ismorelikeascientificinvestigationthanonemightthink.Takeacloserlookatthebabyyingatthetable.Eachtimethebowlofriceispushedoverthetableedge,itfallsinthegroundand,intheprocess,itbelongsoutimportantevidenceabouthowphysicalobjectsinctbowlsofricedonotfloodinmid-sit,butrequiresupporttoremainstable.Itislikelythatbabiesarenotbornknowingthebasicfactoftheuniverse;noraretheyeverclearlytaughtit.Instead,babiesmayformanunderstandingofobjectsupportthroughrepeatedexperimentsandthenbuildonthisknowledgetolearnevenmoreabouthowobjectsinct.Thoughtheirrangesandtoolsdiffer,thebaby’sinvestigationandthescientist’sexperimentappeartosharethesameaim(tolearnaboutthenaturalworld),overallapproach(gatheringdirectevidencefromtheworld),andlogic(aremyobservationswhatIexpected?).Somepsychologistssuggestthatyoungchildrenlearnaboutmorethanjustthephysicalworldinwaythattheyinvestigatehumanpsychologyandtherulesoflanguageusingsimilarmeans.Forexample,itmayonlybethroughrepeatedexperiments,evidencegathering,andfinallyoverturningatheory,thatababywillcometoaccepttheideathatotherpeoplecanhavedifferentviewsanddesiresfromwhatheorshehas.forexample,unlikethechild,Mommyactuallydoesn’tlikeDovechocolate.Viewingchildhooddevelopmentasascientificinvestigationthrowsonhowchildrenlearn,butitalsooffersaninspiringlookatscienceandscientists.Whydoyoungchildrenandscientistsseemtobesomuchalike?Psychologistshavesuggestedthatscienceasaneffortthedesiretoexplore,exin,andunderstandourworldissimplysomethingthatcomesfromourbabyhood.Perhapsevolutionprovidedhumanbabieswithcuriosityandanaturaldrivetoexintheirworlds,andadultscientistssimplymakeuseofthesamedrivethatservedthemaschildren.Thesamecognitivesystemsthatmakeyoungchildrenfeelgoodaboutfeelgoodaboutfiguringsomethingoutmayhavebeenadoptedbyadultscientists.Assomepsychologistsputit,”Itisnotthatchildrenarelittlescientistsbutthatscientistsarebigchildren.”AccordingtosomedevelopmentalA.ababy’syisnothingmorethanaB.scientificresearchintobabies;gamesisC.thenatureofbabies’yhasbeenthoroughlyD.ababy’syissomehowsimilartoascientist’sWelearnfromParagraph2scientistsandbabiesseemtoobservetheworldscientistsandbabiesofteninctwitheachbabiesarebornwiththeknowledgeofobjectbabiesseemtocollectevidencejustasscientistsChildrenmaylearntherulesoflanguageexploringthephysical B.investigatinghumanC.repeatingtheirown D.observingtheirparents’WhatisthemainideaofthelastTheworldmaybemoreclearlyexinedthroughchildren’sStudyingbabies’ymayleadtoabetterunderstandingofChildrenmayhavegreaterabilitytofigureoutthingsthanOne’sdriveforscientificresearch estrongerasheWhatistheauthor’stonewhenhediscussestheconnectionbetweenscientists’researchandbabies’A. B. C. D.【2016·Chimps(黑猩猩)willcooperateincertainways,likegatheringinwarpartiestoprotecttheirterritory.Butbeyondtheminimumrequirementsassocialbeings,theyhavelittleinstinct(本能)tohelponeanother.Chimpsinthewildseekfoodforthemselves.Evenchimpmothersregularlydeclinetosharefoodwiththeirchildren.WhoareablefromayoungagetogathertheirownInthelaboratory,chimpsdon’tnaturallysharefoodeither.Ifachimpisputinacagewherehecanpullinoneteoffoodforhimselfor,withnogreateffort,atethatalsoprovidesfoodforaneighbortothenextcage,hewillpullatrandomhejustdoesn’tcarewhetherhisneighborgetsfedornot.Chimpsaretrulyselfish.Humanchildren,ontheotherhandareextremelycorporative.Fromtheearliestages,theydecidetohelpothers,toshareinformationandtoparticipateaachievingcommongoals.ThepsychologistMichaelTomasellohasstudiedthiscooperativenessinaseriesofexpensivewithveryyoungchildren.Hefindsthatifbabiesaged18monthsseeanworriedadultwithhandsfulltryingtoopenadoor,almostallwillimmediaytrytohelp.Thereareseveralreasonstobelievethattheurgestohelp,informandsharearenottaught.butnaturallypossessedinyoungchildren.Oneisthattheseinstinctsappearataveryyoungagebeforemostparentshavestartedtotrainchildrentobehavesocially.Anotheristhatthehelbehaviorsarenotimprovedifthechildrenarerewarded.Athirdreasonisthatsocialinligence.Developsinchildrenbeforetheirgeneralcognitive（認知的）skills,atleastwhencomparedwithchimps..IntestsconductedbyTomtasell,thechildrendidnobetterthanthechimpsonthephysicalworldtests,butwereconsiderablybetteratunderstandingthesocialworldThecureofwhatchildren’smindshaveandchimps’don’tinwhatTomasellocallswhat.Partofthisabilityisthattheycaninferwhatothersknoworarethinking.Butthat,evenveryyoungchildrenwanttobepartofasharedpurpose.Theyactivelyseektobepartofa“we”,agroupthatintendstoworktowardasharedgoal.WhatcanwelearnfromtheexperimentwithChimpsseldomcareaboutothers’ChimpstendtoprovidefoodfortheirChimpsliketotakeintheirneighbors’ChimpsnaturallysharefoodwitheachMichaelTomasello’stestsonyoungchildrenindicatethat havetheinstincttohelpknowhowtoofferhelptoknowtheworldbetterthantrustadultswiththeirhandsThepassageismainlyabout thehelbehaviorsofyoungwaystotrainchildren’ssharedcooperationasadistinctivehumanthedevelopmentof ligenceinElNifio,aSpanishtermfor“theChristchild”,wasnamedbySouthAmericanfishermanwhonoticedthattheglobalweatherpattern,whichhappenseverytwotosevenyears,reducedtheamountoffishescaughtaroundChristmas.ElNifioseeswarmwater,collectedoverseveralyearsinthewesternPacific,flowbackeastwardswhenwindsthatnormallyblowwestwardsweaken,orsometimestheotherwayround.Theweathereffectsbothgoodandbad,arefeltinmanyces.RichcountriesgainmorefrompowerfulNifio,onbalance,thantheylose.AstudyfoundthatastrongNifioin1997helpedAmerican’seconomygrowby15billion,partlybecauseofbetteragriculturalharvest,farmersintheMidwestgainedfromextrarain.Thetotalriseinagriculturalinrichcountriesingrowththanthefallinpoorones.ButinIndonesiaextremelydrysareinflames.Amulti-yeardrought(干旱）insouth-eastBrazilingworse.ThoughheavyrainsbroughtaboutbyElNinomayrelievethedroughtinCalifornia,theyarelikelytocausesurfacefloodingandotherdisasters.ThemostrecentpowerfulNino,in1997-98,killedaround21,000peopleandcauseddamageworth$36billionaroundtheglobe.ButsuchNinoscomewithmonthsofwarning,andsomuchisknownabouthowtheyhappenthaternmentscanprepare.AccordingtotheOverseasDevelopmentInstitute(ODI),however,just12%ofdisaster-relieffundinginthepasttwodecadeshasgoneonreducingrisksinadvance,ratherthanrecoveryandrebuildingafterwards.Thisisdespiteevidencethatadollarspentonrisk-reductionsavesatleasttwoSimpleimprovementstoinfrastructure基礎設施）canreducethespreadofdiseaseBettersewers下水道makeitlesslikelythatheavyrainisfollowedbyanoutbreakofthediseaseofbadstomach.Strongerbridgesmeanvillagesarelesslikelytobeleftwithoutfoodandmedicineafterfloods.Accordingtoapaperin2011byMrHsiangandco-authors,civil isrelatedtoElNino’sharmfuleffects—andthepoorerthecountry,thestrongerthelink.Thoughtherelationshipmaynotbecausal,heldividedcommunitiestopreparefordisasterswouldatleastreducetheriskthatthosedisastersarefollowedbykillingandwoundingpeople.SincethepoorestareleastlikelytomakeupfortheirlossesfromdisasterslinkedtoElNino,reducingtheirlossesneedstobethepriority.WhatcanwelearnaboutElNinoinParagraphItisnamedafteraSouthAmericanIttakescealmosteveryyearalloverthe sfishermentostopcatchingfisharoundItseesthechangesofwaterflowdirectionintheWhatmayElNinosbringabouttothecountriesAgriculturalharvestsinrichcountriesfall. emoreharmfulthanfloods.C.Richcountries’gainsaregreaterthantheirlosses.D.PoorcountriessufferlessfromdroughtsThedataprovidedbyODIinParagraph4suggest moreinvestmentshouldgotoriskernmentsofpoorcountriesneedmorevictimsofElNinodeservemorerecoveryandreconstructionshouldcomeWhatistheauthor’spurposeinwritingtheTointroduceElNinoanditsToexintheconsequencesofElNToshowwaysoffightingagainstElTourgepeopletoprepareforEl201516【2015·卷】Theoddnessoflifeinspaceneverquitegoesaway.HerearesomeFirstconsidersomethingassimpleassleep.Itspositionpresentsitsownchallenges.Themainquestioniswhetheryouwantyourarmsinsideoroutsidethesleebag.Ifyouleaveyourarmsout,theyfloatinzerogravity,oftengivingasleeastronautthelookofafunnyballed（芭蕾）dancer.“I’maninsideguy,”MikeHopkinssays,whoreturnedfromasix-monthtourontheInternationalSpaceStation.“Iliketobewrappedup.”Onthestation,theordinary esstrangeTheexercisebikefortheAmericanastronautshasnohandlebars.Italsohasnoseat.Withnogravity,it’sjustaseasytopedalviolently.Youcanwatchamoviewhileyoupedalbyfloatinga puteranywhereyouwant.Butstationresidentshavetobecarefulaboutstayinginonecetoolong.Withoutgravitytohelpcirculateair,thecarbondioxideyouexhale(呼氣)hasatendencytoformaninvisible（的）cloudaroundyouhead.Youcanendupwithwhatastronautscallacarbon-dioxideLeroyChiao,54,anAmericanretiredastronautafterfourflights,describeswhathappensevenbeforeyoufloatoutofyourseat,”Yourinnerearthinksyou’refalling.Meanwhileyoureyesarelingyouyou’restandingstraight.Thatcanbeannoying—that’swhysomepeoplefeelsick.”Withinacoupledays—trulyterribledaysforsome—astronauts’brainslearntoignorethepanickysignalsfromtheinnerear,andspacesicknessSpacetravelcanbesodelightfulbutatthesametimeinvisiblydangerous.Forinstance,astronautslosebonemass.That’swhyexerciseisconsideredsovitalthatNationalAeronauticsandSpaceAdministration(NASA)putsitrightontheworkdayschedule.Thefocusonfitnessisasmuchaboutscienceandthefutureasitisaboutkeeanyindividualastronautsreturnhome,and,moreimportantly,howtomaintainstrengthandfitnessforthetwoandahalfyearsormorethatitwouldtaketomakearound-triptoMars.WhatisthemajorchallengetoastronautswhentheysleepinDecidingonapropersleepChoosingacomfortablesleeSeekingawaytofallasleepFindingarighttimetogotoTheastronautswillsufferfromacarbon-dioxideheadachewhen theycirclearoundontheirthey puterswithoutatheyexerciseinoneceforalongtheywatchamoviewhileSomeastronautsfeelsickonthestationduringthefirstfewdaysbecause theirsensesstoptheyhavetostanduptheyfloatoutoftheirseatswhethertheyareabletogobacktotheOneoftheNASA’smajorconcernsaboutastronautsis howmuchexercisetheydoonthehowtheycanremainhealthyforlonginwhethertheycanrecoverafterreturningwhethertheyareabletogobacktothe【2015·卷】LifeintheTransparentanimalsletlightpassthroughtheirbodiesthesamewaylightpassesthroughawindow.Theseanimalstypicallylivebetweenthesurfaceoftheoceanandadepthofabout3,300feet—asfarasmostlightcanreach.Mostofthemareextremelydelicateandcanbedamagedbyasimpletouch.SonkeJohnsen,ascientistinbiology,says,“Theseanimalslivethroughtheirlifealone.Theynevertouchanythingunlessthey’reeatingit,orunlesssomethingiseatingthem.”Andtheyareasclearasglass.Howdoesananimal esee-through?It’strickierthanyoumightthink.Theobjectsaroundyouarevisiblebecausethey ctwithlight.LighttypicallytravelsinastraightButsomematerialsslowandscatter(散射lightbouncingitawayfromitsoriginalpath.Othersabsorbstopitdeadinitstracks.Bothscatteringandabsorptionmakeanobjectlookdifferentfromotherobjectsaroundit,soyoucanseeiteasily.Butatransparentobjectdoesn’tabsorborscatterlight,atleastnotverymuch,Lightcanpassthroughitwithoutbendingorstop.Thatmeansatransparentobjectdoesn’tlookverydifferentfromthesurroundingairorwater.Youdon’tseeit youseethethingsbehindit. etransparent,ananimalneedstokeepitsbodyfromabsorbingorscatteringlight.Livingmaterialscanstoplightbecausetheycontainpigments(色素thatabsorbspecificcolorsoflightButatransparentanimaldoesn’thavepigments,soitstissueswon’tabsorblight.AccordingtoJohnsen,avoidingabsorptionisactuallyeasy.Therealchallengeispreventinglightfromscattering.Animalsarebuiltofmanydifferentmaterialsskin,fat,and andlightmovesthrougheachatdifferentspeed.Everytimelightmovesintoamaterialwithanewspeed,itbendsandscattersTransparentanimalsusedifferenttrickstofightscattering.SomeanimalsaresimplyverysmallorextremelyflatWithoutmuchtissuetoscatterlight,itiseasiertobesee—through.Othersbuildalarge,clearmassofnon-livingjelly-lie(果凍狀的)materialandspreadthemselvesoveritLargertransparentanimalshavethebiggestchallenge,becausetheyhavetomakeallthedifferenttissuesintheirbodiesslowdownlightexactlyasmuchaswaterdoes.Theyneedtolookuniform.Buthowthey’re ngitisstillunknown.Onethingisclearfortheselargeranimals,stayingtransparentisanactiveprocess.Whentheydie,theyturnanon-transparentmilkywhite.AccordingtoParagraph1,transparent stayin B.canbeeasilyC.appearonlyindeep D.arebeautifulTheunderlinedword“dead”inParagraph3 B.C. D.compleOnewayforananimal etransparentisto changethedirectionoflightgathermaterialstoscatteravoidtheabsorptionofgrowbiggertostopThelastparagraphlsusthatlargertransparent movemoreslowlyindeepstaysee-throughevenafterproducemoretissuesfortheirtakeeffectiveactiontoreducelight【2015·江蘇】IntheUnitedStatesalone,over100millioncell-phonesarethrownawayeachyear.Cell-phonesarepartofagrowingmountainofelectronicwastelikecomputersandaldigitalassistants.Theelectronicwastestreamisincreasingthreetimesfasterthantraditionalgarbageasawhole.Electronicdevicescontainvaluablemetalssuchasgoldandsilver.ASwissstudyreportedthatwhiletheweightofelectronicgoodsrepresentedbypreciousmetalswasrelativelysmallincomparisontototalwaste,theconcentration(含量)ofgoldandotherpreciousmetalswashigherinSo-callede-wastethaninnaturallyoccurringminerals.Electronicwastesalsocontainmanypoisonousmetals.Evenwhenthemachinesarerecycledandtheharmfulmetalsremoved,therecyclingprocessofteniscarriedoutinpoorcountries,inpracticallyuncontrolledwayswhichallowmanypoisonoussubstancestoescapeintotheenvironment.Creatingproductsoutofrawmaterialscreatesmuchmorewastematerial,upto100timesmore,thanthematerialcontainedinthefinishedproducts.Consideragainthecell-phone,andimaginetheminesthatproducedthosemetals,thefactoriesneededtomaketheboxandpackaging(包裝)itcamein.Manywastesproducedintheproducingprocessareharmfulaswell.TheU.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgencynotesthatmostwasteisdangerousinthat“theproduction,distribution,anduseofproducts—aswellasmanagementoftheresultingwaste—allresultingreenhousegasrelease.”Individualscanreducetheircontributionbycreatinglesswasteatthestart—forinstance,buyingreusableproductsandrecycling.Inmanycountriestheconceptofextendedproducerresponsibilityisbeingconsideredorhasbeenputinceasanincentive(動機)forreducingwaste.Ifproducersarerequiredtotakebackpackagingtheyusetoselltheirproducts,wouldtheyreducethepackaginginthefirstce?ernments’incentivetorequireproducerstotakeresponsibilityforthepackagingtheyproduceisusuallybasedonmoney.Why,theyask,shouldcitiesortownsberesponsibleforpayingtodealwiththebubblewrap(氣泡墊)thatencasedyourevision?Fromtheernments’pointofview,aprimarygoaloflawsrequiringextendedproducerresponsibilityistotransferboththecostsandthephysicalresponsibilityofwastemanagementfromtheernmentandtax-payersbacktotheproducers.BymentioningtheSwissstudy,theauthorintendstolusthat theweightofe-goodsisratherE-wastedeservestobemadegoodusenaturalmineralscontainmorepreciousthepercentageofpreciousmetalsisheavyine-Theresponsibilityofe-wastetreatmentshouldbeextended fromproducers fromernmentstofromindividualstofromdistributors WhatdoesthepassagemainlytalkTheincreaseine-Thecreationofe-Theseriousnessofe-Themanagementofe-Supposeyou ealeaderinanorganization.It’sverylikelythatyou’llwanttohavevolunteerstohelpwiththeorganization’sactivities.Todoso,itshouldhelptounderstandwhypeopleundertakevolunteerworkandwhatkeepstheirinterestinthework.Let’sbeginwiththequestionofwhypeoplevolunteer.Researchershaveidentifiedseveralfactorsthatmotivatepeopletogetinvolved.Forexample,peoplevolunteertoexpress alvaluesrelatedtounselfishness,toexpandtheirrangeofexperiences,andtostrengthensocialrelationships.Ifvolunteerpositionsdonotmeettheseneeds,peoplemaynotwishtoparticipate.Toselectvolunteers,youmayneedtounderstandthemotivationsofthepeopleyouwishtoattract.Peoplealsovolunteerbecausetheyarerequiredtodoso.Toincreaselevelsofcommunityservice,someschoolshavelaunchedcompulsoryvolunteerprograms.Unfortunay,theseprogramscanshiftpeople’swishofparticipationfromaninternalfactor(e.g.,“Ivolunteerbecauseit’simportanttome”)toanexternalfactor(e.g.,“IvolunteerbecauseI’mrequiredtodoso”).Whenthathappens,people elesslikelytovolunteerinthefuture.Peoplemustbesensitivetothispossibilitywhentheymakevolunteeractivitiesamust.Oncepeoplebegintovolunteer,whatleadsthemtoremainintheirpositionsovertime?Toanswerthisquestion,researchershaveconductedfollow-upstudiesinwhichtheytrackvolunteersovertime.Forinstance,onestudyfollowed238volunteersinFloridaoverayear.Oneofthemostimportantfactorsthatinfluencedtheirsatisfactionasvolunteerswastheamountofsufferingtheyexperiencedintheirvolunteerpositions.Althoughthisresultmaynotsurpriseyou,itleadstoimportantpracticaladvice.Theresearchersnotethatattentionshouldbegivento“trainingmethodsthatwouldpreparevolunteersfortroublesomesituationsorprovidethemwithstrategiesforcowiththeproblemtheydoexperience”.Anotherstudyof302volunteersathospitalsinChicagofocusedonindividualdifferencesinthedegreetowhichpeopleview“volunteerasanimportantsocialrole.Itwasassumedthatthosepeopleforwhomtheroleofvolunteerwasmostpartoftheiralidentitywouldalsobemostlikelytocontinuevolunteerwork.Participantsindicatedthedegreetowhichthesocialrolematteredbyrespondingtostatementssuchas“VolunteeringinHospitalisanimportantpartofwhoIam.”Consistentwiththeresearchersexpectations,theyfoundapositivecorrelation(正相關)betweenthestrengthofroleidentityandthelengthoftimepeopletovolunteer.Theseresults,onceagain,leadtoconcreteadvice:“Onceanindividualbeginseffortsmightfocusondeveloavolunteerrole ItemslikeT-shirtsthatallowvolunteersberecognizedpubliclyfortheircontributionscanhelpstrengthenrolePeoplevolunteermainlyoutof academic B.socialC.financial D.internalWhatcanwelearnfromtheFloridaFollow-upstudiesshouldlastforone B.VolunteersshouldgetmentallyC.Strategytrainingisamustin D.VolunteersareprovidedwithconcreteWhatismostlikelytomotivatevolunteerstocontinuetheirIndividualdifferencesinrole B.PubliclyidentifiablevolunteerT-C.Roleidentityasa D.PracticaladvicefromWhatisthebesttitleoftheHowtoGetPeopleto B.HowtoStudyVolunteerC.HowtoKeepVolunteers’ D.HowtoOrgan