1、1.What are the main features of human language?A. arbitrariness: It means that there is no logical connection between meanings and soundsB. productivity: Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.C. duality: Language

2、is a system, which consists of two sets of structures. At the lower level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless by themselves. But they can be grouped and regrouped into a larger number of units of meaning, which are found at the higher level of the system. Then the units at the high

3、er level can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences.D. displacement: Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.E. cultural transmission: While human capacity fro language has a genetic basis, the details of any language sy

4、stem have to be taught and learned.2.How are the English consonants classified? What are the phonemes in each category? English consonants can be classified in two ways: one is in terms of manner of articulation and the other is in terms of place of articulation.a. Manner of articulation: stops, fri

5、catives, affricates, liquids, nasals, glides.b. Place of articulation: bilabial, labiodental, dental, alveolar, palatal, velar, glottalc. Voicing:BilabialLabiodentalDentalAlveolarPalatalVelarGlottalStopsVLptkVDbdgFricativesVLfshVDvzAffricatesVL(t)tVD(d)dNasalsVDmnLiquidsVDl, rGlidesVDwj3.How are the

6、 English vowels classified? What are the phonemes in each category?A. According to the position of the tongue in the mouth: front, central, backB. According to openness of the mouth: close, semiclose, semiopen, openC. According to the shape of the lips: rounded, unroundedFrontCentralBackCloseSemi-cl

7、oseSemi-openOpeni:Iea:u:):l)4.Explain with examples the sequential rule, the assimilation rule, and the deletion rule. 1. Sequential rule refers to the rule that governs the combination of sounds in a particular language. For example, if a word begins with a l or a r , then the next sound must be vo

8、wel. 2. Assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. For example, the i: sound in words like bean, green, team, and scream. This is because in all these sound combination the i: sound is followed by a nasal n o

9、r m . 3. Deletion rule tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented. For example, in the pronunciation of the word sign, there is no g sound although it is represented in spelling by the letter g. while in its corresponding form signature, the g is pronounced. B

10、ecause the deletion rule is at work: Delete a g when it occurs before a final nasal consonant.5.Explain with examples the main rules of word formation.1. Derivation (派生): new words are formed from existing words or bases by affixation. “singer”from”sing” “writer”from”write”2. Compounding: stringing

11、words together “headstrong”, “without”3. Coinage: a new word can be coined outright to fit some purpose”walkman”,” Kodak”4. Clipping: the abbreviation of longer words or phrasesexpoexposition Quake-earthquake5. Blending: combining parts of other words. smog-smoke+fog; motelmotor+hotel6. Acronym: der

12、ive from the initials of several words. ITinformation technology ISBNinternational standard book number7. Back-formation: new words can be coined already existing words by “subtracting” an affix thought to be part of the old word. to beg (derived from beggar); to baby-sit (derived from baby-sitter)8

13、. Functional shift: words may shift from one part of speech to another without the addition of affixes.N.-V. to bug; V.-N. a hold9. Borrowing: when different cultures come into contact, words are often borrowed from one language to another.exit, beer6.Draw the labeled tree diagrams of the two interp

14、retations of the sentenceThe boy saw the man with a telescope. 1) The boy saw the man with a telescope. Using the telescope, the boy saw the man. 2) The boy saw the man with a telescope. The boy saw the man. The man had a telescope.7.Explain with examples the major sense relations from a lexical per

15、spective.1. Synonymy (同義) refers to the sameness of close similarity of meaning. Eg. Dialectal synonyms: autumnfall Stylistic synonyms: daddaddy2. Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning: accomlic? &collaborator Collocational synonyms: accuseofcharge with Semantically different s

16、ynonyms: amazeastound3. Polysemy(一詞多義): The same one word may have more than one meaning Table: 1. a piece of furniture 2. the food that is put on a table 3. a level area, a plateau4. Homonymy(不同詞，意義或拼寫一樣): words have different meanings have the same form. Different words are identical in sound or s

17、pelling. Homophones: red/read Homographs: lead/i:/ /e/ Complete homonyms5. Hyponymy: the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. Superordinate: flower. Hyponyms: rose Co-hyponymsAntonymy: word are opposite in meaning Gradable antonyms: oldyoung Complement

18、ary antonyms: alivedead Relational opposites: teacherpupil 8.What are the four maxims of the CP in pragmatics? Explain with examples how flouting these maxims give rise to conversational implicature?1. The maxim of quantity1. make your contribution as informative as required.2. do not make your cont

19、ribution more informative than is required eg. A: When is Susans farewell party? B: Sometime next month. The implicature that results is “I dont wish to tell you when the party is going to be held”.2. The maxim of quality1. dont say what you believe to be false2. dont say that for which you lack ade

20、quate evidenceeg. A: Would you like to join us for the picnic on Sunday? B: Im afraid I have got a class on Sunday. Bs implied message is “I dont want to join you”.3. The maxim of relation: Be relevant eg. A: How did the math exam go today?B: We had a basketball match with the other class and we bea

21、t them.The implicature is “I dont wish to talk about the math exam”.4. The maxim of manner1. avoid obscurity of expression2. avoid ambiguity3. be brief4. be orderlyeg. A: Shall we get something for the kids? B: Yes, but I veto I-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.The implicature is “I dont want the kids to know were tal

22、king about setting them some icecream.”李白寫的“舉頭望明月，低頭思故鄉”,看月亮，必須得抬頭看，不然你看見的月只是水中月，而思故鄉，必須得低頭，看著腳下的土地，土地連結深情，傳遞的思念感應才會自然。可見，李白對抬頭和低頭，有看似經典的認識，只是李白的脖頸不聽使喚，該低頭時卻抬頭，該抬頭時卻低頭，搞得李白一輩子光碰頭，有時被摔的鼻青臉腫的，但這時的李白愛喝酒，喝了酒就瘋瘋癲癲的，于是，李白就借著痛感籍著癲意把一肚子的酒吐出來，成就了“君不見黃河之水天上來”的詩句。元 薩都剌 北人冢上詩：“低頭下拜襟盡血，行路人情為慘切。”可見，古人從心里是不喜歡低頭的，喜

23、歡的是抬頭。記得我以前在學校操場里喜歡低頭，體育老師說我是一個沒有自信的學生，還說我是一個沒有陽光心態的人。記得體育老師說過這樣的一句話：“瓜子之所以長的粒粒飽滿，那是因為向日葵始終抬頭向著太陽。”記得我第一次去應聘工作，應聘的工作人員看我低著頭，直接就叫我回去了。那我就抬起頭吧，進家門的時候，由于我抬起頭，我的頭一下子就被碰出了血來，搞得我在家里好幾天就不想出門的。我走下坡的時候，依然是抬起頭，這樣顯得自己有自信，冷不防，我一連向下栽了好幾個跟斗，摔的我頭破血流的。我的頭招誰惹誰了？干嘛都跟我的頭過不去呢？我究竟是該抬頭做人還是該低頭做人呢？有人說走下坡路就必須低頭，言下之意就是人走背時運的

24、時候要低著頭，就像罪犯低著頭接受審判一樣。那當年毛澤東同志遭到王明等人的排擠時干嘛就不低頭呢？那當年紅軍第五次反圍剿失敗后被迫長征干嘛就不低頭舉起手來呢？那趙一曼和江姐被敵人抓去明知只有無盡的酷刑干嘛就不低頭屈服呢？那當年的災荒歲月里全中國人民餓的吃粗糠啃樹皮干嘛就不低頭消沉下去呢？那有人第九次高考依然名落孫山干嘛就不低頭認命了呢？有人寫文章寫了一百篇寫了一千零一夜依然是沒有讀者依然是沒有一個讀者看好時干嘛就不低頭呢？李嘉誠當初做生意是做一次虧一次時干嘛就不低頭呢？你、我、他經過了這么多的困苦折磨干嘛還要堅強的活下去呢？我們的人類和整個社會經常就處在風雨飄搖里干嘛還要堅定不移向前進呢？人的一生

25、，幾乎有過半的時候是在走下坡路，低著頭走下坡路確實是不摔跟斗，但低著頭只能看見腳下的一方寸路，卻看不見天上的太陽和高空的明月，特別是最容易忽視身邊的風景。有人說走上坡路低著頭最好，言下之意就是人走好運的時候要低調要謙虛謹慎。確實低著頭走上坡路由于身體前傾走起路來更有勁而且更能看清腳下的路，但太陽會照在低頭者的臉上嗎？天上的神仙們真的就喜歡這些整天低著頭的人嗎？你看，孫悟空低著頭只能做弼馬溫，但孫悟空抬起頭來就成了齊天大圣；你看，劉邦把頭低著，低了48年，只能是個混混，但劉邦把頭一抬起來，三五年之后就開創了漢朝；你看，朱元璋低著頭只能做乞丐，因為抬起頭來是討不到飯的，但朱元璋后來把頭索性抬起來，

26、結果就建立了明朝；當年美國有核武器，而中國沒有，但毛澤東領導的中國人民就是不低頭，中國人民就是要把頭抬起來，抬起頭的中國人民沒有多久也有了屬于自己的核武器關于低頭和抬頭，各有各的哲學。愛低頭的人，看似是低調的人和謙虛謹慎的人，實則是只看著自己眼前的人，竊喜著眼前的平安和太陽慷慨的一點光輝。愛抬頭的人，看似昂揚向上心里充滿了自信，實則是臉上洋溢著陽光腦后卻是布滿了陰暗，即是摔了跟斗手里依然抓著一抹明媚。有人說該低頭時就低頭，該抬頭時就抬頭，那敢問，什么時候什么情況下才該低頭或才該抬頭呢？倘若天上真的掉下了冰炮，你抬頭被砸著，你低頭還是會被砸著，只不過抬頭是冰炮砸在了臉上，低頭是冰炮砸在了頭頂而已

27、。只有做縮頭烏龜，冰炮才只能砸在護身的殼殼上。有人信仰低頭，這也不錯，低頭自有低頭的妙處。自然，你的人生就是低頭人生，所謂中庸哲學，大概就是這個道理。有人信仰抬頭，這也很好，抬頭自有抬頭的燦爛。自然，你的人生就是抬頭人生，所謂“生當作人杰，死也為鬼雄”大概是這個意思。有人信仰一會兒低頭一會兒抬頭，這也是一個妙。一會兒低頭一會兒抬頭，脖頸得到了鍛煉，因之肌肉和心理機能就更加的發達，展現給別人的是一會兒方型的一會兒圓型的，所謂圓滑，大概就是如此。沒有誰對誰錯，也不存在誰高尚和誰卑微的問題，各有各的哲學，這就是多樣的人和人的多樣性。其實，不是人世太復雜，而是你只顧著自己的低頭或抬頭而不懂別人為什么會低頭和抬頭？人的腦袋瓜不過三斤半，由于低頭和抬頭的