怎樣看待經濟全球化？Theworldismovingawayfromself-containednationaleconomiestowardaninterdependent,integratedglobaleconomicsystemoGlobalizationreferstotheshifttowardamoreintegratedandinterdependentworldeconomyoGlobalizationhastwofacets:theglobalizationofmarketsTheglobalizationofmarketsreferstothemergingofhistoricallydistinctandseparatenationalmarketsintoonehugeglobalmarketplaceInmanyindustries,itisnolongermeaningfultotalkaboutthe"Germanmarket??orthe“Americanmarket'，Instead,thereisonlytheglobalmarketFallingtradebarriersmakeiteasiertosellinternationallyThetastesandpreferencesofconsumersareconvergingonsomeglobalnormFirmshelpcreatetheglobalmarketbyofferingthesamebasicproductsworldwidetheglobalizationofproductionTheglobalizationofproductionreferstothesourcingofgoodsandservicesfromlocationsaroundtheglobetotakeadvantageofnationaldifferencesinthecostandqualityoffactorsofproductionlikeland,labor,andcapitalCompaniescompetemoreeffectivelybyloweringtheiroverallcoststructureorimprovingthequalityorfunctionalityoftheirproductoffering國際貿易理論重商主義：Mercantilismsuggeststhatitisinacountry'sbestinteresttomaintainatradesurplus—toexportmorethanitimportsoMercantilismadvocatesgovernmentinterventiontoachieveasurplusinthebalanceoftrade。Itviewstradeasazero-sumgame-oneinwhichagainbyonecountryresultsinalossbyanother絕對優勢理論：AdamSmitharguedthatacountryhasanabsoluteadvantageintheproductionofaproductwhenitismoreefficientthananyothercountryinproducingitAccordingtoSmith,countriesshouldspecializeintheproductionofgoodsforwhichtheyhaveanabsoluteadvantageandthentradethesegoodsforthegoodsproducedbyothercountriesSmith'sbasicargument,isthatacountryshouldneverproducegoodsthatitcanbuyatalowercostfromothercountries.比較優勢理論:DavidRicardoaskedwhatmighthappenwhenonecountryhasanabsoluteadvantageintheproductionofallgoodsRicardo'stheoryofcomparativeadvantagesuggeststhatcountriesshouldspecializeintheproductionofthosegoodstheyproducemostefficientlyandbuygoodsthattheyproducelessefficientlyfromothercountries,evenifthismeansbuyinggoodsfromothercountriesthattheycouldproducemoreefficientlyathomeIfeachcountryspecializesintheproductionofthegoodinwhichithasacomparativeadvantageandtradesfortheother,bothcountriesgainComparativeadvantagetheorysuggeststhatthepotentialworldproductionisgreaterwithunrestrictedfreetradethanitiswithrestrictedtrade;tradeisapositive-sumgameinwhichallcountriesinvolvedrealizeeconomicgains.SoitprovidesastrongrationaleforencouragingfreetradeHeckscher-OhlinTheoryEliHeckscherandBertilOhlinarguedthatcomparativeadvantagearisesfromdifferencesinnationalfactorendowments-theextenttowhichacountryisendowedwithresourceslikeland,labor,andcapitalTheHeckscher-Ohlintheorypredictsthatcountrieswillexportgoodsthatmakeintensiveuseofthosefactorsthatarelocallyabundant,whileimportinggoodsthatmakeintensiveuseoffactorsthatarelocallyscarceTheProductLifeCycleTheoryTheproductlife-cycletheory,proposedbyRaymondVernon,suggestedthatasproductsmatureboththelocationofsalesandtheoptimalproductionlocationwillchangeaffectingtheflowanddirectionoftradeNewTradeTheorythroughitsimpactoneconomiesofscale,tradecanincreasethevarietyofgoodsavailabletoconsumersanddecreasetheaveragecostofthosegoodsinthoseindustrieswhenoutputrequiredtoattaineconomiesofscalerepresentsasignificantproportionoftotalworlddemand,theglobalmarketmayonlybeabletosupportasmallnumberofenterprises.Thusworldtradeincertaingoodswillbedominatedbycountrieswhosefirmswerefirstmoversintheirproduction.NationalCompetitiveAdvantage:Porter'sDiamondMichaelPortertriedtoexplainwhyanationachievesinternationalsuccessinaparticularindustryandidentifiedfourattributesthatpromoteorimpedethecreationofcompetitiveadvantage:FactorendowmentsDemandconditionsRelatingandsupportingindustriesFirmstrategy,structure,andrivalryFactorendowmentsrefertoanation'spositioninfactorsofproductionnecessarytocompeteinagivenindustryAnation'spositioninfactorsofproductioncanleadtocompetitiveadvantageThesefactorscanbeeitherbasic(naturalresources,climate,location)oradvanced(skilledlabor,infrastructure,technologicalknow-how)Demandconditionsrefertothenatureofhomedemandfortheindustry'sproductorserviceThenatureofhomedemandfortheindustry'sproductorserviceinfluencesthedevelopmentofcapabilitiesSophisticatedanddemandingcustomerspressurefirmstobecompetitiveRelatingandsupportingindustriesrefertothepresenceorabsenceofsupplierindustriesandrelatedindustriesthatareinternationallycompetitiveThepresencesupplierindustriesandrelatedindustriesthatareinternationallycompetitivecanspilloverandcontributetootherindustriesFirmstrategy,structure,andrivalryreferstotheconditionsgoverninghowcompaniesarecreated,organized,andmanaged,andthenatureofdomesticrivalryTheconditionsinthenationgoverninghowcompaniesarecreated,organized,andmanaged,andthenatureofdomesticrivalryimpactsfirmcompetitivenessThefourattributes,governmentpolicy,andchanceworkasareinforcingsystem,complementingeachotherandincombinationcreatingtheconditionsappropriateforcompetitiveadvantageTheCaseForGovernmentInterventionPoliticalArgumentsForFreeTrade:protectingjobsProtectingjobsandindustriesisthemostcommonpoliticalreasonfortraderestrictionsUsuallythisresultsfrompoliticalpressuresbyunionsorindustriesthatare"threatened"bymoreefficientforeignproducers,andhavemorepoliticalcloutthantheconsumersthatwilleventuallypaythecostsprotectingindustriesdeemedimportantfornationalsecurityIndustriessuchasaerospaceorelectronicsareoftenprotectedbecausetheyaredeemedimportantfornationalsecurityretaliatingtounfairforeigncompetitionWhengovernmentstake,orthreatentotake,specificactions,othercountriesmayremovetradebarriersIfthreatenedgovernmentsdon'tbackdown,tensionscanescalateandnewtradebarriersmaybeenactedprotectingconsumersfrom"dangerous"productsGovernmentsmayinterveneinmarketstoprotectconsumersfurtheringthegoalsofforeignpolicyForeignpolicyobjectivescanbesupportedthroughtradepolicyprotectingthehumanrightsofindividualsinexportingcountriesTradepolicycanbeusedtoimprovethehumanrightspoliciesoftradingpartnersEconomicArgumentsForInterventionTheInfantIndustryArgument:TheinfantindustryargumentsuggeststhatanindustryshouldbeprotecteduntilitcandevelopandbeviableandcompetitiveinternationallyStrategicTradePolicyStrategictradepolicysuggeststhatincaseswheretheremaybeimportantfirstmoveradvantages,governmentscanhelpfirmsfromtheircountriesattaintheseadvantagesWhyForeignDirectInvestment?AnexportstrategycanbeconstrainedbytransportationcostsandtradebarriersForeigndirectinvestmentmaybeundertakenasaresponsetoactualorthreatenedtradebarrierssuchasimporttariffsorquotasInternalizationtheory(alsoknownasmarketimperfectionstheory)suggeststhatlicensinghasthreemajordrawbacks:licensingmayresultinafirm'sgivingawayvaluabletechnologicalknow-howtoapotentialforeigncompetitorlicensingdoesnotgiveafirmthetightcontrolovermanufacturing,marketing,andstrategyinaforeigncountrythatmayberequiredtomaximizeitsprofitabilityaproblemariseswithlicensingwhenthefirm'scompetitiveadvantageisbasednotsomuchonitsproductsasonthemanagement,marketing,andmanufacturingcapabilitiesthatproducethoseproducts.EclecticFDItheory-JohnDunningJohnDunningattemptstointegrateavarietyofstrandsofthinkingHedrawspartlyonmacroeconomictheoryandtrade,aswellasmicroeconomictheoryandfirmbehavior(industrialeconomics)O=OwnershipadvantagesSomefirmshaveafirmspecificcapitalknownasknowledgecapital:Humancapital(managers),patents,technologies,brand,reputation,?,Thiscapitalcanbereplicatedindifferentcountrieswithoutlosingitsvalue,andeasilytransferredwithinthefirmwithouthightransactioncostsL-LocalizationadvantagesProducingclosetofinalconsumersordownstreamcustomersSavingtransportcostsObtainingcheapinputsJumpingtradebarriersProvideservices(formostservicesproductionanddeliveryhavetobecontemporaneous)I-internalizationadvantagesWhydon'tafirmjustsignacontractwithasubcontractor(externalagent)inaforeigncountry?Becausecontractingoutisrisky:itimpliestransferringthespecificcapitaloutsidethefirmandrevealingtheproprietaryinformation(e.g.howtousethetechnologyorthepatent).Host-CountryBenefitsTherearefourmainbenefitsofinwardFDIforahostcountry:resourcetransfereffects-FDIcanmakeapositivecontributiontoahosteconomybysupplyingcapital,technology,andmanagementresourcesthatwouldotherwisenotbeavailableemploymenteffects-FDIcanbringjobstoahostcountrythatwouldotherwisenotbecreatedtherebalanceofpaymentseffects-acountry'sbalance-of-paymentsaccountisarecordofacountry,spaymentstoandreceiptsfromothercountries.FDIcanhelpacountrytoachieveacurrentaccountsurplusiftheFDIisasubstituteforimportsofgoodsandservices,andiftheMNEusesaforeignsubsidiarytoexportgoodsandservicestoothercountrieseffectsoncompetitionandeconomicgrowth-FDIintheformofgreenfieldinvestmentincreasesthelevelofcompetitioninamarket,drivingdownpricesandimprovingthewelfareofconsumersIncreasedcompetitioncanleadtoincreasedproductivitygrowth,productandprocessinnovation,andgreatereconomicgrowthHost-CountryCostsInwardFDIhasthreemaincosts:thepossibleadverseeffectsofFDIoncompetitionwithinthehostnationsubsidiariesofforeignMNEsmayhavegreatereconomicpowerthanindigenouscompetitorsbecausetheymaybepartofalargerinternationalorganizationadverseeffectsonthebalanceofpaymentswiththeinitialcapitalinflowsthatcomewithFDImustbethesubsequentoutflowofcapitalastheforeignsubsidiaryrepatriatesearningstoitsparentcountrywhenaforeignsubsidiaryimportsasubstantialnumberofitsinputsfromabroad,thereisadebitonthecurrentaccountofthehostcountry'sbalanceofpaymentstheperceivedlossofnationalsovereigntyandautonomykeydecisionsthatcanaffectthehostcountry,seconomywillbemadebyaforeignparentthathasnorealcommitmenttothehostcountry,andoverwhichthehostcountry?sgovernmenthasnorealcontrolHome-CountryBenefitsThebenefitsofFDIforthehomecountryinclude:theeffectonthecapitalaccountofthehomecountry,sbalanceofpaymentsfromtheinwardflowofforeignearningstheemploymenteffectsthatarisefromoutwardFDIthegainsfromlearningvaluableskillsfromforeignmarketsthatcansubsequentlybetransferredbacktothehomecountryHome-CountryCostsThehomecountry,sbalanceofpaymentscansuffer:fromtheinitialcapitaloutflowrequiredtofinancetheFDIifthepurposeoftheFDIistoservethehomemarketfromalowcostlaborlocationiftheFDIisasubstitutefordirectexportsEmploymentmayalsobenegativelyaffectediftheFDIisasubstitutefordomesticproduction怎樣看待區域一體化？Regionaleconomicintegrationreferstoagreementsbetweencountriesinageographicregiontoreducetariffandnon-tariffbarrierstothefreeflowofgoods,services,andfactorsofproductionbetweeneachotherTheEconomicCaseForRegionalIntegrationAllcountriesgainfromfreetradeandinvestmentRegionaleconomicintegrationisanattempttoexploitthegainsfromfreetradeandinvestmentThePoliticalCaseForRegionalIntegrationcreatesincentivesforpoliticalcooperationandreducesthelikelihoodofviolentconflictgivescountriesgreaterpoliticalcloutwhendealingwithothernationsTheCaseAgainstRegionalIntegrationRegionaleconomicintegrationisonlybeneficialiftheamountoftradeitcreatesexceedstheamountitdivertsTradecreationoccurswhenlowcostproducerswithinthefreetradeareareplacehighcostdomesticproducersTradediversionoccurswhenhighercostsupplierswithinthefreetradeareareplacelowercostexternalsuppliersLevelsOfEconomicIntegrationTherearefivelevelsofeconomicintegration:afreetradeareaeliminatesallbarrierstothetradeofgoodsandservicesamongmembercountries,butmembersdeterminetheirowntradepoliciesfornonmemberstheEuropeanFreeTradeAssociation(betweenNorway,Iceland,Liechtenstein,andSwitzerland),andtheNorthAmericanFreeTradeAgreement(betweentheU.S.,Canada,andMexico)arebothfreetradeareasacustomsunioneliminatestradebarriersbetweenmembercountriesandadoptsacommonexternaltradepolicyTheAndeanPact(betweenBolivia,Columbia,EcuadorandPeru)isanexampleofacustomsunionacommonmarkethasnobarrierstotradebetweenmembercountries,acommonexternaltradepolicy,andthefreemovementofthefactorsofproductionMERCOSUR(betweenBrazil,Argentina,Paraguay,andUruguay)isaimingforcommonmarketstatusAneconomicunionhasthefreeflowofproductsandfactorsofproductionbetweenmembers,acommonexternaltradepolicy,acommoncurrency,aharmonizedtaxrates,andacommonmonetaryandfiscalpolicyTheEuropeanUnion(EU)isanimperfecteconomicunionApoliticalunioninvolvesacentralpoliticalapparatusthatcoordinatestheeconomic,social,andforeignpolicyofmemberstatesTheEUisheadedtowardatleastpartialpoliticalunion,andtheUnitedStatesisanexampleofevencloserpoliticalunionPricesAndExchangeRatesThelawofonepricestatesthatincompetitivemarketsfreeoftransportationcostsandbarrierstotrade,identicalproductssoldindifferentcountriesmustsellforthesamepricewhentheirpriceisexpressedintermsofthesamecurrencyPurchasingpowerparity(PPP)theoryarguesthatgivenrelativelyefficientmarkets(marketsinwhichfewimpedimentstointernationaltradeandinvestmentexist)thepriceofaubasketofgoods"shouldberoughlyequivalentineachcountryPPPtheorypredictsthatchangesinrelativepriceswi