外文翻譯原文TheMarketingandDistributionofFastFoodMaterialSource:ContemporaryEndocrinologyAuthor：MichelleChristianandGaryGeref?Theoriginoffast-foodchainsbeganwiththefranchisingofMcDonald’sinthe1960s,andsincethenthestrengthoffast-foodbrandshasgrownatameteoricrate.Thelargestfast-foodchains(suchasMcDonald’sandYum!Brands)broughtthemassproductionconcepttofoodservice,andintheprocess,changedhowfoodisproduced,distributed,andmarketed.Theactivitiesofeachsegmentofthechainaredeterminedbythespeci?cationsofthelead?rms,thebrandedfast-foodrestaurants,andtheirsuppliers.Thefast-foodbrandsdeterminetheproductionoffoodthroughtheirrequirementsforhowfoodproductsshouldbecultivated,manufactured,packaged,distributed,anddisplayed.Theyworkdirectlywithfoodprocessors,whointurnworkwithfarmers.Fast-foodchainshavefueledtheirrapidgrowththroughglobalexpansion.Thispacehasincreasedexponentiallyindevelopingeconomiessincethe1990s,wherethegradualremovalofmarketbarriersandtraderestrictionsmadetheprocessofinternationalizationsmootherforleadingcompanies.Yum!BrandsisaconglomeratethatincludesKFC,PizzaHut,TacoBell,LongJohnSilver,andA&W.In2008thecompanyboasted36,000unitsinmorethan110countriesandterritories.KFCisthecompany’sstrongestbrandwith5,253unitsintheUnitedStatesand10,327internationally,including2,497inMainlandChinaalone.However,McDonald’sisbyfartheglobalfast-foodbrandleader.In2008thecompany’stotalsystemunitswere31,967,with56%ofthoseunitsbeinginternationallybased.LikeKFC,ChinaleadstheinternationalmarketforMcDonald’swith1,021unitsin2008,doublingsince2003.OthercountrieslikeMexico,Brazil,India,Vietnam,andthePhilippineshavequicklyadoptedthefast-foodrevolution.McDonald’soperates379unitsinMexicoand562inBrazil.India,acountrywitharichspicetraditionandmanyvarietiesoflocalcuisine,isexperiencinga“fascination”withfastfood.Since2006,KFChasopenedmorethan45restaurantswithprojectionstosurpass120by2010.PizzaHutoperates120storesin34citiesandMcDonald’s132stores,withfurtherexpansionplannedinthecomingyears.EntrepreneursinVietnam,nowamemberoftheWorldTradeOrganization,aretryingtopushforwardfranchiseagreementswithCarl’sJr.andRoundTablePizza,whilebytheyear2000,thePhilippineshad2,000nationalandglobalbrandchainedfast-foodrestaurants.Whenfast-food?rmsenteremergingmarkets,theyhavethestrength,technologicalprowess,andmodernWesternimagetoimpactlocalfoodproductioninvariousways.Matejowskyclaimsthatthe“ef?ciencyandregimentation”offast-foodproductionstylesreinforcetheideathatfastfoodisoftensuperiortolocalfoodbecauseitis“scienti?callydesigned”.Interactioneffectsbetweenglobalandlocalfast-foodvaluechainsareseenintheglobalagrobusinessesthatbuyproductsfromlocalfarmsaroundtheworldorelsetheysetuptheirownfarmswheretheyleaseoutplotstolocalgrowerstocultivatethecropstheagro-businesseswant.Theselocalfarmsmaysupplyinternationallybasedfast-foodunits,localfoodmanufacturers,ortransnationalcorporationsthathavesetupoperationsindevelopingcountriesinordertoservethedomesticmarket.Indevelopingeconomies,TNCsarecertainlynottheonlyactorsthatarepracticingindustrializedfarming,makingprocessedfoods,andsetting-upfast-foodrestaurants.Domesticcompaniesdothisaswell.However,theglobalandlocalfoodchainsareconnectedbecausethestandards,practices,andtechnologicalachievementsthatlocalfarmers,manufacturers,andfast-foodcompaniesareusingweregenerallyadoptedfromWestern?rms.Thus,thereisaninteractioneffect.SchlosserarguesthatMcDonald’sandotherfast-foodchainsimparttodevelopingcountriesnewsystemsofagricultureandfoodproduction,whichreorientlocalfoodsystemsfromstapledomesticcropstoexternallyinducedneeds.Forexample,whenJ.R.SimplotenteredChinain1993andcreatedthe?rstcommercialFrenchfryfortheChinesemarket,agriculturalproducersbegancultivatingpotatoestomeetthisnewdemandforprocessedfood.SimilarlyinIndia,afterimportingprocessedFrenchfriesforseveralyears,by2010eachMcDonald’sFrenchfryisexpectedtocomefromIndiansoilbutprocessedbyMcCainFoods.McCainworkedwithIndiangrowersfor9yearstochangetheirpotatocroptotheShepodyvarietytomeetMcDonald’sexactingstandards.ThisisaswitchfromthetypicalIndianpotatovarietiesthatarelowinsolidsandhighinwater.Bothcompaniesseeemergingeconomiesascornerstonesforthefrozenfoodmarket.Thedisseminationofglobalfast-foodproductionandconsumptionthroughlocalimitatorsisevidentintherapidgrowthoflocalfast-foodbrandsindevelopingcountries,aswell.Jollibee,southeastAsia’sversionofMcDonald’s,isconsideredoneoftheregion’smostpro?tablecorporationswithover1,655franchises,branches,andsubsidiariesacrossAsia-Paci?c.Chinasymbolizesthepenetrationoffastfoodsindevelopingcountriesandtheinteractionbetweenglobalandlocaldynamics.KFCisoneofthemostsuccessfulfast-foodchainsinChina.Asof2008,therewereover2,497restaurantsinMainlandChina.Fivehundredormorerestaurantsareplannedfor2009.TheemergenceofKFCandotherleadingfast-foodchainsinChinaisshapinglocalfoodsystemsinlastingways.Agriculturalimportshaveincreasedbecauseforeign?rmsaredemandingparticularcommoditiesaskeyingredientsfortheirfast-foodstaples.Thefood-processingindustryinChinahasgrownathighdoubledigitsoverthepast5years.LargeforeignfoodmanufacturershavecontinuedtosetupfacilitiesandexpandtheirChineseoperationstocatertothedemandfrombothglobalandlocal?rmsinChina.Forexample,Tyson’s,atopsuppliertoKFC,hadtwoacquisitionsin2008.AswithpoultryfarmersintheUnitedStates,TysonpushesstandardsontoChinesepoultryfarmers(e.g.,typesoffeedandantibioticsused)andintheprocessimpactslocalagriculturalsuppliers(e.g.,farmersswitchingtosoybeancultivationwhichisusedasfeedforpoultry).Whathasspurredthemeteoricriseoffast-foodchainsandallowedthemtosolidifytheirmarketpowerwhilenotbeingfoodproducersthemselvesistheroleofmarketingandbrands.Forthepast50years,thefast-foodrevolutionwasbuoyedbythetopbrands’abilitytomoldmarketingmessagesinmultiplemediathatimpactedhowconsumersperceivedfast-food.CorporationslikeMcDonald’sandKFCexpandedtheirbrandimagewithextensivemarketingandadvertising.Fast-foodmarketingcampaignsorientedtowardchildrenremainstrong,particularlywithintherealmofmovies.McDonald’s2008totalmarketingbudgetwas$1.7billionandin2009theylaunchedamajorpromotionalcampaignlinkedtotheblockbustermovieAvatar.Since1997,McDonald’shashadaglobalalliancewiththeWaltDisneyCo.wherebytheysharedexclusivemarketingrightsfor?lmslikeToyStoryandABug’sLife.AschildrenenjoyedtheirChickenMcNuggetHappyMeals,theyalsowereabletoplaywithtoysofBuzzLightyear.McDonald’smovedtheirpartnershiptoDreamWorksstudiosin2007totakeadvantageoftheimmensepopularityoftheShrekmoviefranchise.Thus,childrenassociatefunandexcitingentertainmentwithparticularbrandsandfoodchoices.StrongmarketingandpromotionalinitiativesintheUnitedStatesbythelargestfast-foodcompaniesparallelthemarketingcampaignsthatfollowafast-foodcompany’sentryintoforeignmarkets.Thesecompanieshavecontinuedtotargetchildrenintheirglobaloperations.Themarketingstrategy“thinkglobal,actlocal”hasbecometherallyingcryofglobalmarketingcampaignswithchildrenandyouthrepresentingakeypartofthis“glocalisation.”BothMcDonald’sandKFChavemarketingcampaigns,particularlyinEastAsia,thatappealtochildrenandteenagersthroughtheuseofInternettexting,in-storeprizesinspiredbythesummerOlympics,andthemarketingof“cool.”LihighlightshowKFCmarketingstrategiesinChinahaveadualstrategythatkeepsKFC“hip”foryoungconsumerswhowantaWesternbrandexperienceandculturallysensitiveforadultswhoappreciatetheChinese-stylemenuitemsliketheOldBeijingChickenRoll.Duringthepastdecade,consumerandpublichealthadvocatesandgovernmentbodieshavebeguntohighlightthehealthdangersofexcessiveconsumptionoffastfoodsandtheirresponsibilityoffast-foodmarketingcampaignsorientedtowardchildren.Thispublicoutcryhasspurredanattemptbyfast-food?rmsto“rebrand”themselvesbyofferinghealthierfoodoptions.Theseshiftscouldleadtosigni?cantchangesalongthevaluechainiffast-foodbuyersbegintodemandhealthierproducts(includingadditivesandotherinputs)fromtheirsuppliers,butmanyareskepticalthatthese“healthychoice”changesareinfactsuper?cial.Thelaunchingofhealth-consciousinitiativesbyfast-food?rmsfollowedaseriesofwell-publicizedreportsandlawsuitscriticizingthemarketingpracticesofthetop?rmsandthelackofnutritionalvalueintheirfoodoptions.In2008theCenterforScienceinthePublicInterestandtheCaliforniaCenterforPublicHealthAdvocacyreleasedastudythatconcludedthatmostofthekids’optionsatvenuessuchasMcDonald’s,KFC,andWendy’saretoohighincalories.Inaddition,in2004theWorldHealthOrganizationlauncheditsGlobalStrategyonDiet,PhysicalActivity,andHealththatcalledongovernmentsandprivateindustrytocurbthemarketingofunhealthydietarypractices.However,mostactionsbytheindustryregardingstandardsformarketingpracticesaremerelyvoluntary.TheChildren’sAdvertisingReviewUnit(CARU)oftheNationalCouncilofBetterBusinessBureaussetsguidelinesforpoliciesandstandardsforfoodadvertisersintheUnitedStates,butithasnoenforcementauthority.Themostvisiblegovernmentactionstochangefast-foodindustrypracticeshaveinvolvedtheregulationoftrans-fats,acommoncomponentoffast-foodproducts,andrequirednutritionallabeling.Thishasmainlybeenhandledonastate-by-statebasis.California,NewYorkCity,andTexashavealreadyenactedorputforwardlegislationbanningtrans-fatsinchainedrestaurants.Inaddition,theLabelingEducationandNutrition(LEAN)Act,arecent2008federallegislationthatwouldcreateonestandardfordisclosinginformationinchainrestaurantsnationwide,isgarneringsomeindustrysupport,butmanycompaniesstillopposedetailedlabelingsuchaslistinggramsofsaturatedandtrans-fatsandsodiumlevelsasmenuitems.Withgreaterpublicawarenessaboutfast-foodhealthissuesandthepushforgovernmentregulation,theindustryhassoughttode?ectthisnewmarketpressure.Asof2008,accordingtoEuromonitorInternational,almostalltheleadingfast-foodchainshaveeithereliminatedorareattemptingtoeliminatetrans-fat.BothMcDonald’sandKFChavebegunnewmarketingcampaignstohighlighttheirmovestowardmorenutritiousmeals.Fast-foodbrandsstillstruggle,however,betweennewhealthierclaimsandthecorebrandmessagingoftheirclassicmeals,whiletryingtoavoidformalregulation.Yum!Brands,KFC’sparentcompany,leadstheindustryinputtingforwardcaloriecountmenuboards,andKFCtoutstheirtrans-fat-freechickenitems.KFChasalsocreatednewhealthieritems,suchasbonelessandgrilledchickenoptions,salads,andwraps.Theseinitiativeshaveacceleratedsince2003whenthecompanybegantopushtheideathatchickenispartofahealthydiet,particularlyincomparisontotheofferingsoftheirfast-foodcompetitors.Marketinganalystshavepraisedtheeffectivenessofthisstrategy,sinceconsumersnowthinkthatfast-foodchickenisbetterthanfast-foodbeef.McDonald’s,morethananyfast-foodcompany,wassubjecttoharshcriticismforthelownutritionalvalueofitsfood.Publicexposeswithlawsuits,the2004documentary“SupersizeMe,”andbestsellerbooksanddocumentariesthatexcoriatetheeconomicandsocialabusesofourindustrializedfast-foodcultureandtheagriculturalsystemsthatsupportit(e.g.,FoodInc.,FastFoodNation,Omnivore’sDilemma,andInDefenseofFood)haveallspotlightedthefast-foodindustryanditstoprepresentative,McDonald’s.OriginallyMcDonald’swentonthedefensive,butinthelastfewyearsthecompanyhasattemptedtorebranditselfasarestaurantthatoffersfoodoptionsforabalanceddiet.Theystartededucationalcampaignsin2004whereRonaldMcDonaldtoutedfourkeymessagesthatrangefrommakingbalancedfoodchoicestoembracinganactivelifestyle.Diversesaladmenuoptions,newformsofwraps,andfruitoptionsforkids’HappyMealsarealsopartoftherebrandingeffort.SimilartoKFC,McDonald’shasuseditsWebsiteasamediumtopushitsinitiatives,suchasprovidingnutritionalfactsofmealsandrecommendingtocustomers“simplestepstotrimfat,”“saveonsodium,”or“cutcalories.”TheinitiativesfromKFCandMcDonald’sdemonstratehowlead?rmscanbepressuredtomodifysomeoftheirbusinesspractices.Nevertheless,manyquestionsremainregardingthesigni?canceofthesechanges.AretheseinitiativesmerelypartofwhatSimonlabels“nutriwashing”orattemptstocoverupwhatBrownellcallstheepidemicofa“toxicfoodenvironment”.EuromonitorInternationalpointsoutthatmostofthegrowthandpro?tsoffast-food?rmsarestillgeneratedbysalesoffattyfoodoptions.Moreover,McDonald’sexecutivesarequicktohighlightpersonalresponsibilityandchoiceasthereasonswhyindividualsmakebaddietarydecisionsandtoassertthat“advertisingisnottheissue”inin?uencingfoodchoices.ThesestatementsseemtocontradictthevalueMcDonald’sputsonmarketingandadvertising,aswitnessedbyitsnearly$2billionmarketingbudget,revitalizedcampaignsfortheclassicMcDonald’sBigMac,itsdollarmenu,anditsglobalbrandpositioning.CriticsargueMcDonald’sproductsarenotashealthyasclaimedandthatcaloriecountsareaninadequatebasistodeterminethenutritionalqualityoffood.TheUSfast-foodindustry’sattemptstocountercriticismneedtobeplacedinaglobalperspective.Thechains’practiceofopeninguprestaurantsabroad,particularlyindevelopingcountries,bringsfast-foodmenuitemstonewmarketsbutchangeslocalfoodproductionsystemsthroughgloballocalinteractioneffects.Atthebeginningofthetwenty-?rstcenturyanewMcDonald’swasopeningsomewhereintheworldevery8h.Thesize,in?uence,andmodernimageoffast-foodbusinesspracticeschangehowlocalfoodsareproduced,marketed,anddistributed,withlong-termeffectsforfoodandagriculturesystemsbeyondthefast-foodindustryinthesecountries.Thelaxregulatoryenvironmentinmanydevelopingcountriesandthevalueplacedoneconomicdevelopment,oftentothedetrimentofsocialandenvironmentalprotection,underscorethemultipledimensionsoffastfood’smeteoricrise.Theseverityoftheglobalchildhoodobesitypandemiccallsfornewtheoreticalframeworksandresearchagendasthattakeintoaccountthebroadfactorsthataffectconsumptionpatternsandbehavioralchoicesrelatedtopublichealthcrises.TheGVCparadigmgivesusafoundationtoexaminehowsomeofthemaincorporatestrategiesandinternationalprocessesrelatingtotheproduction,distribution,andthemarketingoffast-foodcompaniesarelinkedtoconsumptionpatternsaroundtheworldandtochildhoodobesityasahealthproblem.Theriseofthefast-foodindustryhasin?uencedthesocialconditionsoflifeindevelopedanddevelopingcountriesinwaysthatcancontributetochildhoodobesity.Manyfast-foodcompanieshavealreadybeencompelledtochangecertainpracticeswithinthefast-foodglobalvaluechain,butresearchisstillneededtoassesswhetherthehealth-relatedinitiativesoftop?rmsaremerelysuper?cial.Thestructuralenvironmentthatthesecompaniesshape,nationallyandglobally,continuestoconstrain,induce,andpressurehowindividuals,andespeciallychildren,makefoodchoicesthatcanadverselyaffecttheirhealth.譯文快餐的營銷和銷售資料來源:ContemporaryEndocrinology作者：MichelleChristianandGaryGeref?以1960年特許經營權在麥當勞的使用為開端，諸多快餐品牌隨之應運而生。以麥當勞和百勝餐飲集團為例，作為全球最大的餐飲連鎖企業中的佼佼者，他們不僅應用了大規模生產的概念，并且改變了其中食物的生產、分配和銷售流程，而這些改變又同時取決于行業的龍頭企業、品牌快餐店以及供應商三方。其中，品牌快餐店需要