閱讀速度估測：TheFrenchRevolutionTheFrenchRevolutionwasanimportantperiodinthehistoryofWesternCivilization.Duringthistime,France’sabsolutemonarchywasreplacedwitharepublicangovernment.TheRomanCatholicChurchwasalsoforcedtogiveupmuchofitspower.Francewouldstillswingbetweenrepublic,empire,andmonarchyfor75yearsaftertherevolutionended.Butthiseventisseenasamajorturningpointintheageofdemocracy.Manypolitical,social,andeconomicfactorsledtotherevolution.Theoldrulersweredestroyedbytheirownrigidity.Therisingmiddleclassallieditwithworkersandthepoor.TheywereinfluencedbytheideasoftheEnlightenment.Inthemonthsbeforetherevolution,foodwasscarce.Thepriceifbreadwassohighthatworkerscouldnotaffordit.Unemploymentwasrampant.Thosewhowerecaughtstealingriskedbeingbeheadedbytheguillotine.KingLouisXVIfailedtodealwiththeseproblemseffectively.Astherevolutionproceeded,thekingbegantofightwithhisofficials,whichledtomuchbloodshed.Thenationaldebtwasoutofcontrol,andtaxesweretoohigh.Bythistime,KingLouisXVItriedtohavetheNationalAssemblyclosed.So,theyhadtheirmeetingonatenniscourtandvowednottotakeabreakuntilFrancehadaconstitution.OnJuly11,1789,KingLouistriedtobanishthereformistminister,Necker.ManyofthecitizensofParisflewintoopenrebellion.OnJuly14th,theystormedtheBastilleprisonandkilleditsgovernor.TheyfreedcriminalsandkilledthemayorofParis.Thefrightenedkingsignedanagreementtogivethepeopleaconstitution.Thissavedhimforawhile.Thesloganoftherevolutionwas,“Liberty,equality,fraternity,ordeath!”Thissloganisstillused.Ithasbecometherallyingcryforpeopletryingtooverthrowoppressivegovernments.ThenoblemenofFrancewerenotsafe.Sometriedwearingtheirservants’clotheswhilemanyothersfledthecountry.Manychangestookplace.Townslosttheirpowersofheavytaxation,andthechurchlostmostofitspowerandland.By1793,KingLouisXVIwascondemnedtodeath.Hewaschargedwithconspiracyagainstpubliclibertyandthegeneralsafety.OnJanuary21,hisheadwaschoppedoffbytheguillotine.OnOctober16,QueenMarieAntoinettefollowedhim.By1795,anewconstitutionwasratified.ItinstalledanewlegislaturecalledtheDirectory.Itconsistedof500representatives.Duringthistime,ageneralnamedNapoleonBonapartegainedmuchpower.By1799,hestagedacoup,andfiveyearslater,hedeclaredhimselfemperor.ThisbroughttherepublicanphaseoftheFrenchRevolutiontoaclose.單詞數：446閱讀時間：________閱讀速度：________詞/分鐘1Thefossilconsistsofacompleteskullofanarchaeocyte,anextinctgroupofancestorsofmoderncetaceans.Althoughlimitedtoaskull,thePakicetusfossilprovidespreciousdetailsontheoriginsofcetaceans.Theskulliscetacean-likebutitsjawboneslacktheenlargedspacethatisfilledwithfatoroilandusedforreceivingunderwatersoundinmodernwhales.Pakicetusprobablydetectedsoundthroughtheearopeningasinlandmammals.Theskullalsolacksablowhole,anothercetaceanadaptationfordiving.Otherfeatures,however,showexpertsthatPakicetusisatransitionalformbetweenagroupofextinctflesh-eatingmammals,themesonychids,andcetaceans.IthasbeensuggestedthatPakicetusfedonfishinshallowwaterandwasnotadaptedforlifeintheopenocean.Itprobablybredandgavebirthonland.ThewordpreciousinthepassageisclosestinmeaningtoAexactBscarceCvaluableDinitial2AnothermajordiscoverywasmadeinEgyptin1989.Severalskeletonsofanotherearlywhale,Basilosaurus,werefoundsedimentsleftbytheTethysSeaandnowexposedintheSaharadesert.Thiswhalelivedaround40millionyearsago,12millionyearsafterPakicetus.Manyincompleteskeletonswerefoundbuttheyincluded,forthefirsttimeinanarchaeocyte,acompletehindlegthatfeaturesafootwiththreetinytoes.Suchlegswouldhavebeenfartoosmalltohavesupportedthe50-foot-longBasilosaurusonland.Basilosauruswasundoubtedlyafullymarinewhalewithpossiblynonfunctional,orvestigial,hindlegs.ThewordexposedinthepassageisclosestinmeaningtoAexplainedBvisibleCidentifiedDlocated3Thedeserts,whichalreadyoccupyapproximatelyafourthoftheEarth’slandsurface,haveinrecentdecadesbeenincreasingatanalarmingpace.Theexpectationsofdesertlikeconditionsintoareaswheretheydidnotpreviouslyexistiscalleddesertification.Ithasbeenestimatedthatanadditionalone-fourthoftheEarth’slandsurfaceisthreatenedbythisprocess.ThewordthreatenedinthepassageisclosestinmeaningtoArestrictedBendangeredCpreventedDrejected4Thereislittledoubt,however,thatdesertificationinmostareasresultsprimarilyfromhumanactivitiesratherthannaturalprocesses.Thesemiaridlandsborderingthedesertsexistinadelicateecologicalbalanceandarelimitedintheirpotentialtoadjusttoincreasingpressurestoprovidethemwithfoodandfuel.Inwetperiods,thelandmaybeabletorespondtothesestresses.Duringthedryperiodsthatarecommonphenomenaalongthedesertmargins,though,thepressureonthelandisoftenfarinexcessofitsdiminishedcapacity,anddesertificationresults.TheworddelicateinthepassageisclosestinmeaningtoAfragileBpredictableCcomplexDvaluable5Fourspecificactivitieshavebeenidentifiedasmajorcontributorstothedesertificationprocesses:overcultivation,overgrazing,firewoodgathering,andoverirrigation.Thecultivationofcropshasexpandedintoprogressivelydrierregionsaspopulationdensitieshavegrown.Theseregionsareespeciallylikelytohaveperiodsofseveredryness,sothatcropfailuresarecommon.Sincetheraisingofmostcropsnecessitatesthepriorremovalofthenaturalvegetation,cropfailuresleaveextensivetractsoflanddevoidofaplantcoverandsusceptibletowindandwatererosion.ThephrasedevoidofinthepassageisclosestinmeaningtoAconsistingofBhiddenbyCexceptforDlackingin6Withtheadventofprojection,theviewer’srelationshipwiththeimagewasnolongerprivate,asithadbeenwithearlierpeepshowdevicessuchastheKinetoscopeandtheMutoscope,whichwasasimilarmachinethatreproducedmotionbymeansofsuccessiveimagesonindividualphotographiccardsinsteadofonstripsifcelluloid.Itsuddenlybecamepublic-anexperiencethattheviewersharedwithdozens,scores,andevenhundredsofothers.Atthesametime,theimagethatthespectatorlookedatexpandedfromtheminusculepeepshowdimensionsof1or2inches(inheight)tothelife-sizeproportionsof6or9feet.ThewordexpandedinthepassageisclosestinmeaningtoAwasenlargedBwasimprovedCwasvariedDwasrejected7Exhibitors,however,wantedtomaximizetheirprofits,whichtheycoulddomorereadilybyprojectingahandfuloffilmstohundredsofcustomersatatime(ratherthanoneatatime)andbycharging25to50centsadmission.AboutayearafteropeningofthefirstKinetoscopeparlorin1894,showmensuchasLouisandAugusteLumiere,ThomasArmatandCharlesFrancisJenkins,andOrvilleandWoodvilleLatham(withtheassistanceofEdison’sformerassistant,WilliamDickson)perfectedprojectiondevices.Theseearlyprojectiondeviceswereusedinvaudevilletheaters,legitimatetheaters,localtownhalls,makeshiftstorefronttheaters,fairgrounds,andamusementparkstoshowfilmstoamassaudience.ThewordreadilyinthepassageisclosestinmeaningtoAfrequentlyBeasilyCintelligentlyDobviouslyTheworldassistanceinthepassageisclosestinmeaningtoAcriticismBleadershipChelpDapproval8Onecognitivetheorysuggeststhataggravatingandpainfuleventstriggerunpleasantfeelings.Thesefeelings,inturn,canleadtoaggressiveaction,butnotautomatically.Cognitivefactorsintervene.Peopledecidewhethertheywillactaggressivelyornotonthebasisoffactorssuchastheirexperienceswithaggressionandtheirinterpretationofotherpeople’smotives.Supportingevidencecomesfromresearchshowingthataggressivepeopleoftendistortotherpeople’smotives.Forexample,theyassumethatotherpeoplemeanthemharmwhentheydonot.TheworddistortinthepassageisclosestinmeaningtoAmistru