1、1066-BattleofHastings黑斯廷斯戰(zhàn)役TheBattleofHastingswastoshapethefutureofMedieval中世紀英國.However,thebattletookplaceaboutsevenmilesfromHastings.Why,thenwastheBattleofHastingsso-called?InHYPERLINK"http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/1066.htm"1066,Battlewasanimportantarea.ComparedtootherpartsofSussex,Battlewaswealthy.However,thetitleBattleofBattlewouldnothaveworked,andforconveniencesake,thenearestlargetownwasselected-Hastings.ThebattleitselfwasfoughtbythecurrentBattleAbbey修道院-however,themainthrust推力ofthebattleconcernedHarold's哈羅德positiononSenlacHill,森拉克山丘ashortdistancefromthecurrentabbey.Inthe11thCentury,thecoastlineofSussexwasdifferenttothatoftoday.ThecoastwasnearertoBattlethanitistodayandtheonlymajorroadthatlinkedHastingstoLondonwentthroughBattle.IfHaroldheldoutatBattle,Williamwouldhavehadgreatdifficultiessustaining支持hiscampaign戰(zhàn)役.MagnaCarta大憲章TheMagnaCartawassignedinJune1215betweenthebarons男爵andHYPERLINK"http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/king_john.htm"KingJohnatRunnymede蘭尼米德nearWindsorCastle.TheMagnaCartawasoneofthemostimportantdocumentsofHYPERLINK"http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/Year%207.htm"MedievalEngland.ThedocumentwasaseriesofwrittenpromisesbetweenthekingandhissubjectsthathewouldgovernEnglandanddealwithitspeopleaccordingtothecustomsofHYPERLINK"http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/feudal.htm"feudal封建law.MagnaCartawasanattemptbythebaronstostopakingabusinghispowerwiththepeopleofEnglandsuffering.EnglandhadforsomeyearsownedlandinFrance.Thebaronshadprovidedthekingwithbothmoneyandmentodefendthisterritory領土.Traditionally,thekinghadalwaysconsultedthebaronsbeforeraisingtaxesanddemandingmoremenformilitaryservice.ThiswasallpartoftheHYPERLINK"http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/feudal.htm"FeudalSystem.Whilekingsweremilitarilysuccessfulabroad,relationsbetweenthekingsandthebaronsweregood.Johnwasnotsuccessfulinhismilitarycampaignsabroad.Hisconstantdemandsformoremoneyandmenangeredthebarons.By1204,JohnhadlosthislandinnorthernFrance.Inresponsetothis,Johnintroducedhightaxeswithoutaskingthebarons.ThiswasagainstHYPERLINK"http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/feudal.htm"feudallawandacceptedcustom.Johnmademistakesinotherareasaswell.HeangeredtheRomanCatholicChurch天主教.Thepope,angeredbyJohn'sbehaviour,bannedallchurchservicesinEnglandin1207.EvenworseforJohnthatthepopeexcommunicated把逐出教會himin1209.Facedwiththis,JohnclimbeddownandacceptedthepoweroftheCatholicChurchgivingthemmanyprivilegesin1214.1214wasadisastrous災難性的yearforJohnforanotherreason.Onceagain,hesufferedmilitarydefeatinanattempttogetbackhisterritoryinnorthernFrance.HereturnedtoLondondemandingmoremoneyfromtaxes.Thistimethebaronswerenotwillingtolisten.Theyrebelledagainsthispower.ThebaronscapturedLondon.However,theydidnotdefeatJohnentirelyandbythespringof1215,bothsideswerewillingtodiscussmatters.TheresultwastheMagnaCarta.Thedocumentcanbedividedintosections:Thefirstclauses條款concernthepositionoftheCatholicChurchinEngland.ThosethatfollowstatethatJohnwillbelessharshonthebarons.ManyoftheclausesconcernEngland'slegalsystem.MagnaCartapromisedlawsthatweregoodandfair.Itstatesthateveryoneshallhaveaccesstocourtsandthatcostsandmoneyshouldnotbeanissueifsomeonewantedtotakeaproblemtothelawcourts.Italsostatesthatnofreemanwillbeimprisonedorpunishedwithoutfirstgoingthroughtheproperlegalsystem.Infutureyearstheword"freeman"wasreplacedby"noone"toincludeeverybody.ThelastfewsectionsdealwithhowtheMagnaCartawouldbeenforced執(zhí)行inEngland.TwentyfivebaronsweregiventheresponsibilityofmakingsurethekingcarriedoutwhatwasstatedintheMagnaCarta-thedocumentclearlystatesthattheycoulduseforceiftheyfeltitwasnecessary.TogivetheMagnaCartaanimpact,theroyalseal玉璽ofKingJohnwasputonittoshowpeoplethatithadhisroyalsupport.ThisisthelargestredsealatthebottomoftheMagnaCartaabove.JohnWyclifchurchreformer約翰威克里夫1320-1384theMorningStaroftheReformation.JohnWycliffewasaSaxon撒克遜人,borninHipswell希普斯威爾,England.HeearneddegreesatOxfordUniversityandbecameadoctoroftheology神學in1372.Afterservingasanenvoy使者toFrance,representingEnglandinadispute爭吵withthePope,hereturnedtoEnglandandpublishedwritingsagainstthesecular世俗的powerofthePapacy教皇.InspiteofattemptsbytheChurchtohaveWycliffearrestedandassassinated暗殺,hecontinuedtowriteandtopreach說教.HemaintainedthatnoPopenorcouncil理事會wasinfallible絕對無錯誤的,andiftheirviewscontradicted反駁theBible,thoseviewswerewrong.Hetaughtthattheclergy神職人員shouldnotruleasprincesofthechurch,butshouldhelpthepeopleandleadthemtoChrist.Finallyprohibited禁止bytheBishop主教ofLondonfrompreaching,WycliffeconfinedhimselftowritingandtranslatingtheBiblefromLatintoEnglish.Thirty-oneyearsafterhisdeath,theChurchorderedallhisbooksburned,hisbonesdugup挖出來andburned,andhisashes骨灰scatteredontheThamesRiverQueenElizabethI(1558)TudorqueenofEnglandandIreland,nicknamed'Gloriana'光榮女王andthe'VirginQueen'童貞女王whoovercamemanychallengesandthreatsathomeandfromabroadtopresideoveraperceived'goldenage'inEnglishhistory.ElizabethwasborninGreenwichon7September1533,theonlydaughterofHenryVIIIandhissecondwife,AnneBoleyn安娜柏蓮.WhenElizabethwastwo,Annewasbeheaded砍頭foradulteryontheordersofHenry,andElizabethwasexiled放逐fromcourt.Herchildhoodwasdifficult,althoughshereceivedathoroughProtestant新教的education.In1553,Elizabeth'solderhalf-sisterMarybecamequeen.Marywasdeterminedtore-establishCatholicism天主教inEnglandandviewedtheProtestantElizabethasadirectthreat,brieflyimprisoningherintheTowerofLondon.WhenElizabethsucceededtothethronein1558oneofherprioritieswastoreturnEnglandtotheProtestantfaithandoneofhergreatestlegacieswastoestablishandsecureanEnglishformofProtestantism.Elizabeth'sreign統(tǒng)治alsosawEnglandsignificantlyexpanditstradeoverseaswhileathome,Shakespeare,Spenser史賓瑟andMarlowe馬洛wereattheforefrontofarenaissanceinpoetryanddrama.Catholicchallengesandplots策劃persisted堅持不懈throughmuchofElizabeth'sreign.ThefocusofmostofthesewasElizabeth'scousin,Mary,QueenofScots,aCatholicwithastrongclaimtotheEnglishthrone,whosoughtexileinEnglandin1568.FrancisDrake(1580)法蘭西斯.德瑞克DrakewasanElizabethansailorandnavigator航海家,andthefirstEnglishmantocircumnavigate環(huán)航theglobe.FrancisDrakewasborninTavistock泰維斯托克,Devon德文郡inaround1540andwenttoseaatanearlyage.In1567,DrakemadeoneofthefirstEnglishslavingvoyagesaspartofafleetledbyhiscousinJohnHawkins霍金斯,bringingAfricanslavestoworkinthe'NewWorld'.AllbuttwoshipsoftheexpeditionwerelostwhenattackedbyaSpanishsquadron中隊.TheSpanishbecamealifelongenemyforDrakeandtheyinturnconsideredhimapirate海盜.In1570and1571,DrakemadetwoprofitabletradingvoyagestotheWestIndies.In1572,hecommandedtwovessels船舶inamarauding搶劫的expeditionagainstSpanishportsintheCaribbean加勒比海.HesawthePacificOceanandcapturedtheportofNombredeDios迪奧斯港ontheIsthmusofPanama巴拿馬地峽.HereturnedtoEnglandwithacargo船貨ofSpanishtreasureandareputationasabrilliantprivateer私掠船船長.In1577,DrakewassecretlycommissionedbyElizabethItosetoffonanexpeditionagainsttheSpanishcoloniesontheAmericanPacificcoast.Hesailedwithfiveships,butbythetimehereachedthePacificOceaninOctober1578onlyonewasleft,Drake'sflagshipthePelican派力肯,renamedtheGoldenHind金鹿號.ToreachthePacific,DrakebecamethefirstEnglishmantonavigatetheStraitsofMagellan.HetraveledupthewestcoastofSouthAmerica,plunderingSpanishports.Hecontinuednorth,hopingtofindarouteacrosstotheAtlantic,andsailedfurtherupthewestcoastofAmericathananyEuropean.Unabletofindapassage,heturnedsouthandtheninJuly1579,westacrossthePacific.HistravelstookhimtotheMoluccas摩鹿加群島,Celebes西里伯斯島,Java爪哇andthenroundtheCapeofGoodHope好望角.HearrivedbackinEnglandinSeptember1580witharichcargoofspicesandSpanishtreasureandthedistinctionofbeingthefirstEnglishmantocircumnavigatetheglobe.Sevenmonthslater,Elizabethknighted授予爵士himaboardtheGoldenHind,totheannoyanceofthekingofSpain.In1585,DrakesailedtotheWestIndiesandthecoastofFloridawherehesacked洗劫andplunderedSpanishcities.Onhisreturnvoyage,hepickeduptheunsuccessfulcolonistsofRoanoke羅阿諾克IslandoffthecoastoftheCarolinas,whichwasthefirstEnglishcolonyintheNewWorld.In1587,warwithSpainwasimminent迫近andDrakeenteredtheportofCadiz卡迪斯anddestroyed30oftheshipstheSpanishwereassembling裝配againsttheBritish.In1588,hewasaviceadmiral海軍中將inthefleetthatdefeatedtheArmada.Drake'slastexpedition,withJohnHawkins,wastotheWestIndies.TheSpanishwerepreparedforhimthistime,andtheventurewasadisaster.Drakediedon28January1596ofdysentery痢疾offthecoastofPortobelo波托韋洛,Panama巴拿馬.Hawkinsdiedatthesametime,andtheirbodieswereburiedatsea.SpanishArmada無敵艦隊TheArmadawasfurtherdelayedin1588andits122shipsdidnotarriveoffLand'sEnduntillateJuly.Parma帕爾馬,thelatestSpanishresearchhasrevealed,hadgivenuphopeofitsarrivalandhadsentthecrewsofhisownshipstoworkoncanalsinland.TheEnglishhadmadetwoattemptsto攔截theArmadainIberian伊比利亞watersinJuneandJuly,onlytobeblownbackbystorms.Nowsomewhatsceptical懷疑themselves,theirfleetofsixty-sixshipswascaughtbysurprisere-supplyinginPlymouth普利茅斯whentheArmadaappeared.AlthoughtheywereabletoescapefromPlymouthsuccessfully,theywerefacedwithasternchase尾擊uptheChannel.Muchammunition軍火wasexpended,buttheSpanishformationheldtogetherwell,andonlytwoshipswerelost,bothbyaccidents.TheSpanishadmiral,thedukeofMedinaSidonian美迪納西多尼亞,thentooktheunexpecteddecisiontoanchoroff停泊在Calais卡萊斯on6August.ThisenabledtheEnglishtodisperse分散hisfleetbyafireshipattackandstrongwindsblewitintotheNorthSea.FourSpanishshipswerelostatthispoint,butthegreatmajorityescapednorthwards.However,therewasnownoalternativetotheriskyvoyagehomeroundScotlandandIreland.Theultimate根本的responsibilityforlaunchingtheArmadaanddevisingitsstrategywasPhilip.Thewidespreadappreciationthathehaddisregarded不理professionaladvicedidgreatdamagetohisreputationwithinSpainand,althoughmostofthefleetreturnedsafely,thefailureoftheArmadaalsoshattered打碎theimageoftheinvincibility不可戰(zhàn)勝ofSpanisharms.TherewasconsiderabledisappointmentinEnglandthatsofewSpanishshipsweresunkorcaptured,buttherelativeefficiencyoftheEnglishgovernmentinthecrisisandthequeen'spublicappearanceamonghertroopsdidmuchtoboostElizabeth'sprestige.Afurtherfifteenyearsofhostilities敵意layahead,buttheAnglo盎格魯-SpanishmaritimewarnowbecameonlyapartofamuchwiderconflictinwhichthestruggleforFrancewasthevital至關(guān)重要theatre.TheEnglishmadetwomajorlandingsontheIberiancoast,andtheSpaniardsaraid突襲onCornwall康沃爾in1595andalandinginIrelandin1601,butnoneofthesehadanydecisive決定性的effect.TheAnglo-Spanishwarwastoallintentsastalemate僵局,forneithersidewasabletoattacktheothereffectively,buteventhisresultshowedthattherewerelimitstoSpanishpower.OnaonetoonebasisEnglandwasclearlymuchweakerthanSpain,butElizabethhaddemonstratedsuccessfullythatofallPhilip'scontemporariesinEuropeshewasthemostdangerousenemy.TheGloriousRevolution1688;EnglishBillofRights1689The1688Revolution,oftenreferredtoasthe‘GloriousRevolutionof1688’,endedthereignofHYPERLINK"http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/james_ii_stuart.htm"JamesIIandushered迎接inthereignofHYPERLINK"http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/william_iii.htm"WilliamIIIandHYPERLINK"http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/mary_ii.htm"MaryII.The1688RevolutioncameattheendofareignwhenJamesIIhadmadeitalltooclearthathewantedRomanCatholicism天主教reinstalled重新設置asthecountry’sreligion.Thechronicdislocation混亂oftheHYPERLINK"http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/english_civil-war.htm"EnglishCivilWarwasrememberedbymanypeopleaswastherelativestabilityofthereignofHYPERLINK"http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/Charles_II.htm"CharlesII.Noonewaswillingtotoleratemoreyearsofuncertaintyorthepossibilityofthecountrybeingpushedoncemoreintomilitaryconflict.ThepoliciesofJamesIIhadcausedmuchdiscontentinbothHYPERLINK"http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/whigs.htm"Whig輝格黨andHYPERLINK"http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/tories.htm"Tory托利黨parties.Asaresult,leadingpoliticianstookituponthemselvestosendan‘Invitation’toWilliamofOrangeinvitingtheProtestant新教徒Williamtotakethethroneofthecountry–alongwithhiswifeMarywhowasthedaughterofJamesIIandgranddaughterofHYPERLINK"http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/charles_i.htm"CharlesI.WilliamlandedatTorbay托陪inDevoninNovember1688.JamesfledtoFranceonDecember23rdandinJanuary1689,Williamcalledaparliament議會whichpassedthenecessarylegislation法律thattheRevolutionrequiredtobesuccessful.Thepoliticiansbehindthe1688RevolutionsawJamesIIasbeingtheoneatfaultfordestabilizing動搖theconstitution憲法asitthenstood.LedbyHYPERLINK"http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/earl_of_danby.htm"Danby丹比,theybelievedthattheyweremerelytakingsocietybacktothetimewhenthesocialstatusquo說thattheywantedexistedandwheretheProtestantfaithwasguaranteed.TherewerethosewhoviewedMaryaloneasthelegalheirtothethroneasshewasfromHYPERLINK"http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/stuart_england.htm"Stuartblood–thedaughterofJamesIIandthegranddaughterofCharlesI.Despitethenumberofyearsthathadpassed,therewerestillthosewhoheldCharlesinhighregardasamonarch.Thestrictlegitimists正統(tǒng)主義者wantedWilliamnamedasaregent攝政王only.William,arespectedProtestantleaderfromHolland,wouldnotacceptthisandstatedbluntlythathewouldreturntoHollandunlesshewasgivenfullregalpowers.Theprospectofapoliticalvacuum真空wasnotwelcomedbyanyone.ThereweresomeWhigs,thoughfewinnumber,whobelievedthatthepeopleofthecountryshouldhavethefinalsayinwhoshouldbemonarch.TheBillofRightsTheBillofRightsisanHYPERLINK"/wiki/Act_of_Parliament"actoftheHYPERLINK"/wiki/Parliament_of_England"Parliament議會ofEngland,whoseHYPERLINK"/wiki/Long_title"titleisAnActDeclaringtheRightsandLibertiesoftheSubjectandSettlingtheSuccession繼承oftheCrown.ItisoftencalledtheEnglishBillofRights.TheBillofRightswaspassedbyParliamenton16December1689.Itwasare-statementinHYPERLINK"/wiki/Statute"statutoryform法定形式oftheDeclarationofRightpresentedbytheHYPERLINK"/wiki/Convention_Parliament_(1689)"ConventionParliament英國代表國會toHYPERLINK"/wiki/William_and_Mary"WilliamandMaryinMarch1689,invitingthemtobecomejointsovereignsofEngland.Itlaysdownlimitsonthepowersofsovereign君主andsetsouttherightsofParliamentandrulesforfreedomofspeechinParliament,therequirementtoregularelectionstoParliamentandtherighttopetition請愿themonarchwithoutfearofretribution懲罰.ItreestablishedthelibertyofProtestantstohavearmsfortheirdefencewithintheruleoflaw,andcondemned宣判死刑theJamesIIofEnglandfor"causingseveralgoodsubjectsbeingProtestantstobedisarmed繳械atthesametimewhenHYPERLINK"/wiki/Papist"papistswerebotharmedandemployedcontrarytolaw.TheseideasaboutrightsreflectedthoseofthepoliticalthinkerHYPERLINK"/wiki/John_Locke"JohnLockeandtheyquicklybecamepopularinEngland.Italsosetsoutcertainconstitutional憲法上的requirementsofthetaseektheconsentofthepeople,asrepresentedinHYPERLINK"/wiki/Parliament"parliament.AlongwiththeHYPERLINK"/wiki/Act_of_Settlement_1701"1701ActofSettlementtheBillofRightsisstillineffect.ItisoneofthemainconstitutionallawsgoverningtheHYPERLINK"/wiki/Line_of_succession_to_the_British_Throne"successiontothethroneand—followingBritish殖民主義,theresultantdoctrine,andindependence—tothethronesofthoseotherCommonwealth英聯(lián)邦王國,bywillingdeferencetotheactasaBritishstatuteorasaHYPERLINK"/wiki/Patriation"patriatedpartoftheparticularrealm'sconstitution.Sincetheimplementation執(zhí)行oftheStatuteineachoftheCommonwealthrealms,theBillofRightscannotbealtered改變inanyrealmexceptbythatrealm'sownparliament,andthen,byHYPERLINK"/wiki/Convention_(norm)#Government"convention公約,andasittouchesonthesuccessiontothesharedthrone,onlywiththeconsentofalltheotherrealms.IntheUnitedKingdom,theBillofRightsisfurtheraccompaniedbytermagant,HabeasandHYPERLINK"/wiki/Parliament_Acts_1911_and_1949"ParliamentActs1911and1949assomeofthebasicdocumentsoftheHYPERLINK"/wiki/Unwritten_constitution"uncodifiedHYPERLINK"/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_Kingdom"Britishconstitution.Aseparatebutsimilardocument,theHYPERLINK"/wiki/Claim_of_Right_Act_1689"Claim索賠ofRightAct,appliesinHYPERLINK"/wiki/Scotland"Scotland.TheEnglishBillofRights1689inspiredinlargeparttheHYPERLINK"/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights"UnitedStatesBillofRights.6、ScientificRevolution:Galileo,Descartes笛卡爾,Kepler,Bacon,NewtonGalileowasthefirstmantouseatelescope望遠鏡toobservethestarsandplanets,andwiththeinformationhegainedfromthis(cratersonthemoon月球上的環(huán)形山,moonsaroundJupiter在木星上的衛(wèi)星,sunspots太陽黑子),hewasabletochallengetheoutdatedviewoftheuniverse--whichseemedtothinkthat”theheavens”wereperfect.Beyondastronomy,GalileochallengedAristotle's亞里士多德conceptsofmotion運動,anddiscoveredtheprincipleofinertia慣性,andhisthoughtswerelaterincorporatedintoIsaacNewton'suniversallawofgravitation.Descartesiswithoutadoubtthegenuine真正的pioneeroftheScientificRevolutionintheseventeenthcentury,whichoverturnedancientandmedievalscientificconceptionsinnaturalsciencesaswellasinmathematicsandpaved鋪就thewayforthemodernera.Descarteshimselfwasfullyawareofhisepistemologicalinnovations認識論的創(chuàng)新,theoriginality獨創(chuàng)性ofhistheories,andthedisruptionhewasbringingtothescholasticvision學術(shù)視野oftheworldandtoScripturaldogmas圣經(jīng)教條.Buthewastornbetweentheproud,absolutecertaintyofbeingthebearer送信人ofthetruth,whichspurred鞭策himontopublish,andthefear,ifhedidpublish,ofbeingmisunderstoodandheldincontempt輕視bytheestablishedphilosophersorworsestill,ofbeingbrandedaheretic異教徒bythetheologians,Calvinist加爾文教徒andCatholicalike.Descartesfeltthreatened.ItwasJohannesKepler(1571-1630)whodiscoveredanddemonstratedthattheEarthorbitstheSun地球繞著太陽轉(zhuǎn).Inhis1609work,HYPERLINK"/AstronomiaNova.html"AstronomiaNova新天文學,KeplerdemolishedtheAristotelian亞里士多德cosmography宇宙學ofperfectformsandunknowableHYPERLINK"/Hypotheses.html"causes,foreverchangedman’ssenseofhisplace,helpedlaunchthescientificrevolution--andalsoidentifiedproblemswhichwouldmotivatethedevelopmentofcalculus微積分.Earlyinhiscareerheclaimed”allknowledgeashisprovince”andafterwardsdedicated獻身himselftoawholesale大規(guī)模的revaluationandre-structuringoftraditionallearning.Totaketheplaceoftheestablishedtradition,heproposedanentirelynewsystembasedonempirical經(jīng)驗主義andinductive誘導的principlesandtheactivedevelopmentofnewartsandinventions,asystemwhoseultimategoalwouldbetheproductionofpracticalknowledgefor”theuseandbenefitofmen”andthereliefofthehumancondition.In1620Bacondeclaredwaronalchemy煉丹術(shù)inhisNovumOrganum新工具.Inthreevolumesofthatbook,heused192aphorisms格言toexplainhowscienceshouldwork.Theyvaryfromsinglesentencestoshortarticles.Man,theservantandinterpreterofNature,onlydoesandunderstandssomuchasheshallhaveobserved,infactorinthought,ofthecourseofNature;morethanthisheneitherknowsnorcando.Inotherwords,Baconwouldnolongerputupwithalchemicaldeductions扣除額.Knowledgenotonlywastobeginwithobservation;itshouldalsoavoidgoingbeyondobservation.Andhedidn'tstopthere.Hewentontosaythattheevilsofcurrentscienceweretheresultoftoomuchadmirationforthepowersofthemind.AfterBaconweamassed積累abodyoffactsthealchemistsnevercouldhaveamassed,whiletheoreticalsciencewentfallow.OnlyanoccasionalNewtonorLeibnitz萊布尼茨wentwhereBacon'smethodscouldnotgo.Newtonwasanalchemistwhokeptquietaboutalchemy.Butheusedhisdeductive推論的talenttogofarbeyondmerefact-collecting.Newton'sgreatcontributionisfirstdiscoverieswasthatwhenlightispassedthroughaprism棱柱,thelightturnsintoawidebandofcolorscalledaspectrum光譜.Newtoncreatedthefirstreflectingtelescope.Newtonmadeahugeimpactonastronomybydefiningthelawsofmotionanduniversalgravitation萬有引力.TheprotestantReformation(MartinLuther)新教改革

MartinLutherwasaGermanmonkandteacheroftheology神學.Hetroubledaboutthepossibilityofnotgoingtoheaven.Heledastrictlife,butwasworriedaboutsin罪惡.LutherreadthewritingsofearlyChristiantheologians,includingSt.Augustine圣奧古斯丁,andtheBible.HefoundtheanswerhewaslookingforinPaul'sLettertotheRomans.Onlyfaith,notgooddeeds,couldsaveaperson.Nogoodworks,rituals儀式,etc.Wouldsaveapersoniftheydidnotbelieve.Overall總的說來,Lutherwasarathercrude粗魯?shù)膍an.Hehadnotroublewithtalkingabouttakinguparmsagainstthosewhoopposedhim.Healsosawfittousefoul污穢的languagetocombat反對evil.BeforeMartinLutherdied,whenhewasveryill,hetoldhiswife,”Iamfedupwiththeworldanditwithme.Iamlikearipestool凳子,andtheworldislikeagiganticanus巨大的肛門,andsowe'reabouttoletgoofeachother.TheBeginnings：Indulgences贖罪券

Tetzel泰策爾,afriar修道士,soldindulgences.Doctrines教義ofindulgencestaughtthatChristandthesaints圣徒hadstoredupatreasuryofmerit功德券.Indulgencescouldreducetheamountoftimespentinpurgatory;didnotbringforgivenessofsin.Indulgencesweresoldtoraisemoneyforthechurch'sincreasingexpenses.The95Theses：Lutherquestionedindulgencesandcorruption墮落.OnOctober31,1517Lutherposted,onachurchdoorinWittenburg維騰堡,his95thesessayingsalvation拯救isachievedthroughfaithalone.Hejustwantedthechurchtocleanuptheiract,butthechurchdidn'twantto.TheChurchwasmad,butthepeoplefollowedLuther.Thesepeoplebecameknownas”Lutherans."DietofWorms：In1520PopeLeoX利奧十世orderedLuthertogiveuphisbeliefs.LutherburnedtheorderinfrontofacheeringcrowdandwasexcommunicatedbyLeoXing1521CharlesVoteHolyRomanEmperor,declaredLutheranoutlaw罪犯whenhewouldn'tgiveuphisviews.MartinLutherwentintohidinginacastleandtranslatedNewTestament新約intoGerman,makingitpossibleformorepeopletoreadtheBible.AcceptanceofReforms：SomelocalGermanchurchesacceptedLuther'sideas.LutheranismwonenormoussupportandspreadthroughoutEuropebecause:Peopledidn'tlikealltheirmoneygoingtoRome.Theydidn'tliketheItalianscontrollingallchurchproperty.Germanprincessawachancetogetchurchproperty.In1529,GermanPrincesissuedaformal"protest"againsteffortsbytheChurchtosuppress鎮(zhèn)壓thereforms.Thereformerscametobeknownas”Protestants."TheEnlightenment啟蒙運動:ThomasHobbes,JohnLockeCausesoftheAmericanRevolution:SonsofLiberty自由之子(1765);StampAct印花稅法案;1stContinentalCongress第一次大陸會議;Loyalistsvs.Patriots支持者和愛國者.TheSonsofLibertyInBostoninearlysummerof1765agroupofshopkeepersandartisans工匠whocalledthemselvesTheLoyalNine,beganpreparingforagitation鼓動againsttheStampAct.Asthatgroupgrew,itcametobeknownastheSonsofLiberty.Andgrowitdid!ThesewerenottheleadingmenofBoston,butratherworkersandtradesmen.Itwasunseemlythattheywouldbesoagitatedbyaparliamentaryact.ThoughtheirranksdidnotincludeSamuelandJohnAdams,thefactmayhavebeenaresultofamutually互助的beneficialagreement.TheAdams’andotherradical激進的membersofthelegislature立法機關(guān)weredailyinthepubliceye;theycouldnotaffordtobetoocloselyassociatedwithviolence,neithercouldthesecretiveSonsofLibertyaffordmuchpublicexposure.However,amongstthemembersweretwomenwhocouldgeneratemuchpublicsentiment感情abouttheAct.BenjaminEdessaprinter,andJohnGilloftheBostonGazette公報producedasteadystreamofnewsandopinion.WithinaveryshorttimeagroupofsometwothousandmenhadbeenorganizedunderEbenezer埃比尼澤McIntosh麥金托什,aSouthBostonshoemaker.ThefirstwidelyknownactsoftheSonstookplaceonAugust14,1765,whenaneffigy雕像ofAndrewOliver(whowastobecommissioned委任的Distributor散布者ofStampsforMassachusetts馬薩諸塞州)wasfoundhanginginatreeonNewbury紐伯利street,alongwithalargebootwithadevilclimbingoutofit.ThebootwasaplayonthenameoftheEarlofButte比特伯爵andthewholedisplaywasintendedtoestablishanevilconnectionbetweenOliverandtheStampAct.Thesheriffs州長weretoldtoremovethedisplaybutprotestedinfearoftheirlives,foralargecrowdhadformedatthescene.Beforetheeveningamob暴民burnedOliver'spropertyonKilby基爾比street,thenmovedontohishouse.Theretheybeheaded砍頭theeffigyandstonedthehouseasitsoccupantslookedoutinhorror.TheythenmovedtonearbyFortHill希爾堡weretheybuiltalargefireandburnedwhatwasleftoftheeffigy.Mostofthecrowddissipated消散atthatpoint,howeverMcIntoshandcrew,thenundercoverofdarkness,ransacked洗劫Oliver'sabandonedhomeuntilmidnight.OnthateveningitbecameveryclearwhoruledBoston.TheBritishMilitia,theSheriffs郡長andJustices,keptalowprofile.Noonedaredrespondtosuchviolentforce.BytheendofthatyeartheSonsofLibertyexistedineverycolony.TheirmostpopularobjectivewastoforceStampDistribut