1、SLA期末考試提綱Week9Chapter1IntroducingSecondLanguageAcquisitionChapter2FoundationsofSecondLanguageAcquisitionPARTONE:Definition:SecondLanguageAcquisition(SLA):atermthatrefersbothtothestudyofindividualsandgroupswhoarelearningalanguagesubsequenttolearningtheirfirstoneasyoungchildren,andtotheprocessoflearni

2、ngthatlanguage.FormalL2learning:instructedlearningthattakesplaceinclassrooms.InformalL2learning:SLAthattakesplaceinnaturalisticcontexts.Firstlanguage/nativelanguage/mothertongue(L1):Alanguagethatisacquirednaturallyinearlychildhood,usuallybecauseitistheprimarylanguageofachildsfamily.Achildwhogrowsupi

3、namultilingualsettingmayhavemorethanone“first”language.Secondlanguage(L2):Initsgeneralsense,thistermreferstoanylanguagethatisacquiredafterthefirstlanguagehasbeenestablished.Initsspecificsense,thistermtypicallyreferstoanadditionallanguagewhichislearnedwithinacontextwhereitissocietallydominantandneede

4、dforeducation,employment,andotherbasicpurposes.Themorespecificsensecontrastswithforeignlanguage,librarylanguage,auxiliary(幫助的，輔助的)language,andlanguageforspecificpurposes.Targetlanguage:Thelanguagethatistheaimorgoaloflearning.Foreignlanguage:Asecondlanguagethatisnotwidelyusedinthelearnersimmediatesoc

5、ialcontext,butratheronethatmightbeusedforfuturetravelorothercross-culturalcommunicationsituations,oronethatmightbestudiedasacurricularrequirementorelectiveinschoolwithnoimmediateornecessarypracticalapplication.Librarylanguage:Asecondlanguagethatfunctionsasatoolforfurtherlearning,especiallywhenbooksa

6、ndjournalsinadesiredfieldofstudyarenotcommonlypublishedinthelearnersL1.Auxiliarylanguage:Asecondlanguagethatlearnersneedtoknowforsomeofficialfunctionsintheirimmediatesociopoliticalsetting.Orthattheywillneedforpurposesofwidercommunication,althoughtheirfirstlanguageservesmostotherneedsintheirlives.Lin

7、guisticcompetence:Theunderlyingknowledgethatspeakers/hearershaveofalanguage.Chomskydistinguishesthisfromlinguisticperformance.Linguisticperformance:Theuseoflanguageknowledgeinactualproduction.Communicativecompetence:Abasictenet(原則、信條、教條)ofsociolinguisticsdefinedas“whataspeakerneedstoknowtocommunicat

8、eappropriatelywithinaparticularlanguagecommunity”(Saville-Troike2003)Pragmaticcompetence:Knowledgethatpeoplemusthaveinordertointerpretandconveymeaningwithincommunicativesituations.Multilingualism:Theabilitytousemorethanonelanguage.Monolingualism:Theabilitytouseonlyonelanguage.16.Simultaneousmultilin

9、gualism:Abilitytousemorethanonelanguagethatwereacquiredduringearlychildhood.17.Sequentialmultilingualism:AbilitytouseoneormorelanguagesthatwerelearnedafterL1hadalreadybeenestablished.18.1nnatecapacity:Anaturalability,usuallyreferringtochildrensnaturalabilitytolearnoracquirelanguage.19.Childgrammar:G

10、rammarofchildrenatdifferentmaturationallevelsthatissystematicintermsofproductionandcomprehension.20.Initialstate:Thestartingpointforlanguageacquisition;itisthoughttoincludetheunderlyingknowledgeaboutlanguagestructuresandprinciplesthatareinlearnersheadsattheverystartofL1orL2acquisition.21.Intermediat

11、estate:Itincludesthematurationalchangeswhichtakeplacein“childgrammar”,andtheL2developmentalsequencewhichisknownaslearnerlanguage.Finalstate:TheoutcomeofL1andL2leaning,alsoknownasthestablestateofadultgrammar.Positivetransfer:AppropriateincorporationofanL1structureorruleinL2structure.Negativetransfer:

12、InappropriateinfluenceofanL1structureorruleonL2use.Alsocalledinterference.Poverty-of-the-stimulus:TheargumentthatbecauselanguageinputtochildrenisimpoverishedandtheystillacquireL1,theremustbeaninnatecapacityforL1acquisition.26.Structuralism:Thedominantlinguisticmodelofthe1950s,whichemphasizedthedescr

13、iptionofdifferentlevelsofproductioninspeech.27.Phonology:Thesoundsystemsofdifferentlanguagesandthestudyofsuchsystemsgenerally.28.Syntax:Thelinguisticsystemofgrammaticalrelationshipsofwordswithinsentences,suchasorderingandagreement.29.Semantics:Thelinguisticstudyofmeaning.30丄exicon:Thecomponentoflang

14、uagethatisconcernedwithwordsandtheirmeanings.Behaviorism:Themostinfluentialcognitiveframeworkappliedtolanguagelearninginthe1950s.Itclaimsthatlearningistheresultofhabitformation.Audiolingualmethod:Anapproachtolanguageteachingthatemphasizesrepetitionandhabitformation.Thisapproachwaswidelypracticedinmu

15、choftheworlduntilatleastthe1980s.Transformational-GenerativeGrammar:Thefirstlinguisticframeworkwithaninternalfocus,whichrevolutionizedlinguistictheoryandhadprofoundeffectonboththestudyoffirstandsecondlanguages.Chomskyarguedeffectivelythatthebehavioristtheoryoflanguageacquisitioniswrongbecauseitcanno

16、texplainthecreativeaspectsoflinguisticability.Instead,humansmusthavesomeinnatecapacityforlanguage.PrinciplesandParameters(model):TheinternallyfocusedlinguisticframeworkthatfollowedChomskysTransformational-GenerativeGramm.arItrevisedspecificationsofwhatconstitutesinnatecapacitytoincludemoreabstractno

17、tionsofgeneralprinciplesandconstraintscommontohumanlanguageaspartofaUniversalGrammar.Minimalistprogram:TheinternallyfocusedlinguisticframeworkthatfollowedChomskysPrinciplesandParametersmodeTl.hisframeworkaddsdistinctionsbetweenlexicalandfunctionalcategorydevelopment,aswellasmoreemphasisontheacquisit

18、ionoffeaturespecificationasapartoflexicalknowledge.Functionalism:AlinguisticframeworkwithanexternalfocusthatdatesbacktotheearlytwentiethcenturyandhasitsrootsinthePragueSchool(布拉格學派)ofEasternEurope.Itemphasizestheinformationcontentofutterancesandconsiderslanguageprimarilyasasystemofcommunication.Func

19、tionalistapproacheshavelargelydominatedEuropeanstudyofSLAandarewidelyfollowedelsewhereintheworld.Neurolinguistics:Thestudyofthelocationandrepresentationoflanguageinthebrain,ofinteresttobiologistsandpsychologistssincethenineteenthcenturyandoneofthefirstfieldstoinfluencecognitiveperspectivesonSLAwhens

20、ystematicstudybeganin1960s.Criticalperiod:ThelimitednumberofyearsduringwhichnormalL1acquisitionispossible.CriticalPeriodHypothesis:TheclaimthatchildrenhaveonlyalimitednumberofyearsduringwhichtheycanacquiretheirL1flawlessly;iftheysufferedbraindamagetothelanguageareas,brainplasticityinchildhoodwouldal

21、lowotherareasofthebraintotakeoverthelanguagefunctionsofthedamagedareas,butbeyondacertainage,normallanguagedevelopmentwouldnotbepossible.ThisconceptiscommonlyextendedtoSLAaswell,intheclaimthatonlychildrenarelikelytoachievenativeornear-nativeproficiencyinL2.40.Informationprocessing(IP):Acognitiveframe

22、workwhichassumesthatSLA(likelearningofothercomplexdomains)proceedsfromcontrolledtoautomaticprocessingandinvolvesprogressivereorganizationofknowledge.Connectionism:Acognitiveframeworkforexplaininglearningprocesses,beginninginthe1980sandbecomingincreasinglyinfluential.ItassumesthatSLAresultsfromincrea

23、singstrengthofassociationsbetweenstimuliandresponses.Variationtheory:AmicrosocialframeworkappliedtoSLAthatexploressystematicdifferencesinlearnerproductionwhichdependoncontextsofuse.Accommodationtheory:AframeworkforstudyofSLAthatisbasedonthenotionthatspeakersusuallyunconsciouslychangetheirpronunciati

24、onandeventhegrammaticalcomplexityofsentencestheyusetosoundmorelikewhomevertheyaretalkingto.44.Socioculturaltheory(SCT):AnapproachestablishedbyVygotskywhichclaimsthatinteractionnotonlyfacilitateslanguagelearningbutisacausativeforceinacquisition.Further,alloflearningisseenasessentiallyasocialprocesswh

25、ichisgroundedinsocioculturalsettings.Ethnography(人種論、民族志)ofcommunication:AframeworkforanalysisoflanguageanditsfunctionsthatwasestablishedbyHymes(1966).Itrelateslanguageusetobroadersocialandculturalcontexts,andappliesethnographicmethodsofdatacollectionandinterpretationtostudyoflanguageacquisitionandu

26、se.Acculturation(文化適應)：LearningthecultureoftheL2communityandadaptingtothosevaluesandbehaviorpatterns.AcculturationModel/Theory:Schumanns(1978)theorythatidentifiesgroupfactorssuchasidentityandstatuswhichdeterminesocialandpsychologicaldistancebetweenlearnerandtargetlanguagepopulations.Heclaimstheseinf

27、luenceoutcomesofSLA.48.Socialpsychology:Asocietalapproachinresearchandtheorythatallowsexplorationofissuessuchashowidentity,status,andvaluesinfluenceL2outcomesandwhy.Ithasdisciplinarytiestobothpsychologicalandsocialperspectives.PARTTWO:Short&Longanswers:Chapter1Whatarethesimilaritiesanddifferencesbet

28、weenlinguists,psycholinguist,sociolinguistsandsocialpsycholinguists?P3（1）Linguistsemphasizethecharacteristicsofthedifferencesandsimilaritiesinthelanguagesthatarebeinglearned,andthelinguisticcompetence（underlyingknowledge）andlinguisticperformance（actualproduction）oflearnersatvariousstagesofacquisitio

29、n.（2）Psychologistsemphasizethementalorcognitiveprocessesinvolvedinacquisition,andtherepresentationoflanguagesinthebrain.（3）Sociolinguistsemphasizevariabilityinlearnerlinguisticperformance,andextendthescopeofstudytocommunicativecompetence（underlyingknowledgethatadditionallyaccountsforlanguageuse,orpr

30、agmaticcompetence）.（4）Socialpsychologistsemphasizegroup-relatedphenomena,suchasidentityandsocialmotivation,andtheinteractionalandlargersocialcontextsoflearning.Whatarethedifferencesbetweensecondlanguage,foreignlanguage,librarylanguageandauxiliarylanguage?P4（1）Asecondlanguageistypicallyanofficialorso

31、cietallydominantlanguageneededforeducation,employment,andotherbasicpurposes.Itisoftenacquiredbyminoritygroupmembersorimmigrantswhospeakanotherlanguagenatively.Inthismorerestrictedsense,thetermiscontrastedwithothertermsinthislist.（2）Aforeignlanguageisonenotwidelyusedinthelearnersimmediatesocialcontex

32、twhichmightbeusedforfuturetravelorothercross-culturalcommunicationsituations,orstudiedasacurricularrequirementorelectiveinschool,butwithnoimmediateornecessarypracticalapplication.（3）Alibrarylanguageisonewhichfunctionsprimarilyasatoolforfuturelearningthroughreading,especiallywhenbooksorjournalsinades

33、iredfieldofstudyarenotcommonlypublishedinthelearnersnativetongue.Anauxiliarylanguageisonewhichlearnersneedtoknowforsomeofficialfunctionsintheirimmediatepoliticalsetting,orwillneedforpurposesofwidercommunication,althoughtheirfirstlanguageservesmostotherneedsintheirlives.Whyaresomelearnersmore(orless)

34、successfulthanother?P5TheintriguingquestionofwhysomeL2learnersaremoresuccessfulthanothersrequiresustounpackthebroadlabel“learners”forsomedimensionsofdiscussion.LinguisticsmaydistinguishcategoriesoflearnersdefinedbytheidentityandrelationshipoftheirL1andL2;psycholinguistsmaymakedistinctionsbasedonindi

35、vidualaptitudeforL2learning,personalityfactors,typesandstrengthofmotivation,anddifferentlearningstrategies;sociolinguistsmaydistinguishamonglearnerswithregardtosocial,economic,andpoliticaldifferencesandlearnerexperiencesinnegotiatedinteraction;andsocialpsychologistsmaycategorizelearnersaccordingtoas

36、pectsoftheirgroupidentityandattitudestowardtargetlanguagespeakersortowardL2learningitself.Chapter2Listatleastfivepossiblemotivationsforlearningasecondlanguageatanolderage.P10Themotivationmayarisefromavarietyofconditions,includingthefollowing:Invasionorconquestofonescountrybyspeakersofanotherlanguage

37、;Aneedordesiretocontactspeakersofotherlanguagesineconomicorotherspecificdomains;ImmigrationtoacountrywhereuseofalanguageotherthanonesL1isrequired;Adoptionofreligiousbeliefsandpracticeswhichinvolveuseofanotherlanguage;Aneedordesiretopursueeducationalexperienceswhereaccessrequiresproficiencyinanotherl

38、anguage;Adesireforoccupationalorsocialadvancementwhichisfurtheredbyknowledgeofanotherlanguage;Aninterestinknowingmoreaboutpeoplesofotherculturesandhavingaccesstotheirtechnologiesorliteratures.Whatarethetwomainfactorsthatinfluencethelanguagelearning?P13（1）Theroleofnaturalability:Humansarebornwithanat

39、uralabilityorinnatecapacitytolearnlanguage.（2）Theroleofsocialexperience:NotallofL1acquisitioncanbeattributedtoinnateability,forlanguage-specificlearningalsoplaysacrucialrole.Eveniftheuniversalpropertiesoflanguagearepreprogrammedinchildren,theymustlearnallofthosefeatureswhichdistinguishtheirL1fromall

40、otherpossiblehumanlanguages.Childrenwillneveracquiresuchlanguage-specificknowledgeunlessthatlanguageisusedwiththemandaroundthem,andtheywilllearntouseonlythelanguage（s）usedaroundthem,nomatterwhattheirlinguisticheritage.American-bornchildrenofKoreanorGreekancestrywillneverlearnthelanguageoftheirgrandp

41、arentsifonlyEnglishsurroundsthem,forinstance,andtheywillfindtheirancestrallanguagejustashardtolearnasanyotherEnglishspeakersdoiftheyattempttolearnitasanadult.Appropriatesocialexperience,includingL1inputandinteraction,isthusanecessaryconditionforacquisition.Whatistheinitialstateoflanguagedevelopmentf

42、orL1andL2respectively?P17-18TheinitialstateofL1learningiscomposedsolelyofaninnatecapacityforlanguageacquisitionwhichmayormaynotcontinuetobeavailableforL2,ormaybeavailableonlyinsomelimitedways.TheinitialstateforL2learning,ontheotherhand,hasresourcesofL1competence,worldknowledge,andestablishedskillsfo

43、rinteraction,whichcanbebothanassetandanimpediment.Howdoesintermediatestatesprocess?P18-19Thecross-linguisticinfluence,ortransferofpriorknowledgefromL1toL2,isoneoftheprocessesthatisinvolvedininterlanguagedevelopment.Twomajortypesoftransferwhichoccurare:(1)positivetransfer,whenanL1structureorruleisuse

44、dinanL2utteranceandthatuseisappropriateor“correct”intheL2;and(2)negativetransfer(orinterference),whenanL1structureorruleisusedinanL2utteranceandthatuseisinappropriateandconsideredan“error”.Whatisanecessaryconditionforlanguagelearning(L1orL2)?P20Languageinputtothelearnerisabsolutelynecessaryforeither

45、L1orL2learningtotakeplace.ChildrenadditionallyrequireinteractionwithotherpeopleforL1learningtooccur.ItispossibleforsomeindividualstoreachafairlyhighlevelofproficiencyinL2eveniftheyhaveinputonlyfromsuchgenerallynon-reciprocalsourcesasradio,television,orwrittentext.Whatisafacilitatingconditionforlangu

46、agelearning?P20WhileL1learningbychildrenoccurswithoutinstruction,andwhiletherateofL1developmentisnotsignificantlyinfluencedbycorrectionofimmatureformsorbydegreeofmotivationtospeak,bothrateandultimatelevelofdevelopmentinL2canbefacilitatedorinhabitedbymanysocialandindividualfactors,suchas(1)feedback,i

47、ncludingcorrectionofL2learnerserrors;(2)aptitude,includingmemorycapacityandanalyticability;(3)motivation,orneedanddesiretolearn;(4)instruction,orexplicitteachinginschoolsettings.Giveatleast2reasonsthatmanyscientistsbelieveinsomeinnatecapacityforlanguage.P21-24Thenotionthatinnatelinguisticknowledgemu

48、stunderlie(指原則、理由構成某學說.的基礎，潛在于.之下)languageacquisitionwasprominentlyespoused(采納或支持事業理念)byNoamChomsky.Thisviewhasbeensupportedbyargumentssuchasthefollowing:(1)Childrensknowledgeoflanguagegoesbeyondwhatcouldbelearnedfromtheinputtheyreceive:Childrenoftenhearincompleteorungrammaticalutterancesalongwithgr

49、ammaticalinput,andyettheyaresomehowabletofilterthelanguagetheyhearsothattheungrammaticalinputisnotincorporatedintotheirL1system.Further,childrenarecommonlyrecipientsofsimplifiedinputfromadults,whichdoesnotincludedataforallofthecomplexitieswhicharewithintheirlinguisticcompetence.Inaddition,childrenhe

50、aronlyafinitesubsetofpossiblegrammaticalsentences,andyettheyareabletoabstractgeneralprinciplesandconstraintswhichallowthemtointerpretandproduceaninfinitenumberofsentenceswhichtheyhaveneverheardbefore.(2)Constraintsandprinciplescannotbelearned:Childrensaccesstogeneralconstraintsandprincipleswhichgove

51、rnlanguagecouldaccountfortherelativelyshorttimeittakesfortheL1grammartoemerge,andforthefactthatitdoessosystematicallyandwithoutany“wild”divergences.Thiscouldbesobecauseinnateprinciplesleadchildrentoorganizetheinputtheyreceiveonlyincertainwaysandnotothers.Inadditiontothelackofnegativeevidence,constra

52、intsandprinciplescannotbelearntinpartbecausechildrenacquireafirstlanguageatanagewhensuchabstractionsarebeyondtheircomprehension;constraintsandprinciplesarethusoutsidetherealmoflearningprocesswhicharerelatedtogeneralintelligence.Universalpatternsofdevelopmentcannotbeexplainedbylanguage-specificinput:

53、Inspiteofthesurfacedifferencesininput,therearesimilarpatternsinchildacquisitionofanylanguageintheworld.Theextentofthissimilaritysuggeststhatlanguageuniversalsarenotonlyconstructsderivedfromsophisticatedtheoriesandanalysesbylinguists,butalsoinnaterepresentationsineveryyoungchildsmind.Linguistshavetak

54、enaninternaland/orexternalfocustothestudyoflanguageacquisition.Whatisthedifferencebetweenthetwo?P25-26Internalfocusemphasizesthatchildrenbeginwithaninnatecapacitywhichisbiologicallyendowed,aswellastheacquisitionoffeaturespecificationasapartoflexicalknowledge;whileexternalfocusemphasizestheinformatio

55、ncontentofutterances,andconsiderslanguageprimarilyasasystemofcommunication.WhatarethetwomainfactorsforlearningprocessinthestudyofSLAfromapsychologicalperspective?P26-27(1)InformationProcessing,whichassumesthatL2isahighlycomplexskill,andthatlearningL2isnotessentiallyunlikelearningotherhighlycomplexsk

56、ills.Processingitselfisbelievedtocauselearning;(2)Connectionism,whichdoesnotconsiderlanguagelearningtoinvolveeitherinnateknowledgeorabstractionofrulesandprinciples,butrathertoresultfromincreasingstrengthofassociations(connections)betweenstimuliandresponses.WhatarethetwofociforthestudyofSLAfromthesoc

57、ialperspective?P27(1)Microsocialfocus:theconcernswithinthemicrosocialfocusrelatetolanguageacquisitionanduseinimmediatesocialcontextsofproduction,interpretation,andinteraction.(2)Macrosocialfocus:theconcernsofthemacrosocialfocusrelatelanguageacquisitionandusetobroaderecologicalcontexts,includingcultu

58、ral,political,andeducationalsettings.Week10Chapter5SocialcontextsofSecondLanguageAcquisitionPARTONE:DefinitionCommunicativecompetence:Abasictenetofsociolinguisticsdefinedas“whataspeakerneedstoknowtocommunicateappropriatelywithinaparticularlanguagecommunity”(Saville-Troike2003)Languagecommunity:Agrou

59、pofpeoplewhoshareknowledgeofacommonlanguagetoatleastsomeextent.Foreignertalk:SpeechfromL1speakersaddressedtoL2learnersthatdiffersinsystematicwaysfromlanguageaddressedtonativeorveryfluentspeakers.DirectCorrection:Explicitstatementsaboutincorrectlanguageuse.Indirectcorrection:Implicitfeedbackaboutinap

60、propriatelanguageuse,suchasclarificationrequestswhenthelistenerhasactuallyunderstoodanutterance.InteractionHypothesis:TheclaimthatmodificationsandcollaborativeeffortswhichtakeplaceinsocialinterationfacilitateSLAbecausetheycontributetotheaccessibilityofinputformentalprocessing.Symbolicmediation:Alink