Reading ComprehensionIBT TOFEL閱讀課講義主講：杜昶旭花花（Fleur）根據老杜錄音整理52 怎樣的考試和怎樣的我們. 托福考試的本質探求對”Test of English as a Foreign Language”的再認知n 托福到底有多難？u 習慣的說法：高考六級考研托福SATGREGMATLSATu 用合理的方式進行難度的評價n 從“OF”到“IN”u Test OF English：“對”英語的測試l TOEFL (Test Of English as a Foreign Language)l IELTS (International English Language Testing System)l TOEIC (Test Of English for International Communication)l CET-4 (College English Test-Band 4)l CET-6 (College English Test-Band 6)l PETS (Public English Test System)u Test IN English：“用”英語的測試l GRE (Graduate Record Examination)l GMAT (Graduate Management Admission Test)l SAT (Scholastic Assessment Test)l LSAT (Law School Admission Test)l NCEE (National College Entrance Examination)l NGEE (National Graduate Entrance Examination)n 托福作為語言考試的本質u 測試考生對英語的綜合應用能力包括聽、說、讀、寫的獨立能力和綜合能力；u 測試考生在實際的學習、生活過程中的語言應用能力所有測試內容均與實際結合；u 考生的英語水平與分數具有直接相關性零基礎測試假設；u 包含且僅包含語言使用過程中的所有因素詞匯、句子、語篇、語境、交流方式。 托福考試的本質探求從形式特征到內容特征The TOFEL IBT Reading section includes 3 to 5 reading passages, each approximately 700 words long. There are 12 to 14 questions per passage. You have from 60 to 100 minutes to answer all questions in the section. (Official Guide .p.19)Most questions are worth 1 points but the last question in each set is worth more than 1 points. The directions indicate how many points you may receive. (Reading section directions in actual test)n 托福閱讀的形式特征u ETS所闡述的形式l 文章數量：或篇這樣安排是為了為了匹配時間，的考生希望遇到l 考試時間：每篇文章分鐘l 文章長度：字左右l 題目數量篇l 每題原始分數：最后一題分，其他題目分l 分值范圍：標準分分（分數對應規則參照新托福官方指南頁）我們的實際情況：我們的聽說讀寫都一樣差，我們認為自己閱讀能力強幻覺。或者都一樣，而且，其中只有或者個段子是算分的。（篇中有兩篇并不算分，但是我們都不知道是哪兩篇）l 時段劃分：個（分分）或個（分分分）；The Reading section is divided into separately timed parts. (Reading section directions in the actual test )A clock in the top of the screen will show how much time to available to answer these questions.(Reading section direction in the first model test)Within each part, you can go to the next question by clicking Next. You may skip question and go back to them later. If you want to return to previous questions, click on Back. You can click on Review at any time and the review screen will show you which questions you have answered and which you have not answered. From this review screen, you may go directly to any question you have already seen in the Reading section. (Reading section directions in the actual test)Some passages include a word or phrase that is underlined in blue. Click on the word or phrase to see a definition or an explanation. (Reading section directions in the actual test)You have seen all of the questions in this part of the Reading section. You have time left to Review. As long as there is time remaining, you can check your work.Click on Return to continue working.Click on Review to see the review screen for this section.Click on Continue to go on.Once you leave this part of the Reading Section, you WILL NOT be able to return to it. . (Reading section directions in the actual test)l 計時方式：由系統自動進行倒計時；l 常用按鈕：Next, Back, Review, Return, Continuel 單詞劃線解釋：對考生友好還是浪費時間？筆記區不要提前，盡量晚開考；考試休息期間別到處走動，可以聽聽其他人考口語，提前準備自己的口語話題。準備周期：個月為比較理想；單詞生詞率：；以后會介紹如何推斷單詞詞義以及如何背單詞。考試注意點（口語）：聲音宏亮，語速穩定，邏輯清晰和TOFEL是全集和子集的關系，一個是all, 一個是none，老俞的紅寶書剔除了TOFEL單詞。背單詞完全可以背一樣的。一本紅寶書就可以了。重要的是詞表，分類。高中畢業生的語文水平就已經達到了handle的能力了。托福分數計算方法：分數（小于的人數等于的人數的一半）/總分數TOFEL分數分就是我們的目標。無障礙GRE分，數學分，作文分。成績是分開看的u 從PBT到IBT的閱讀習慣變化l 垂直閱讀和水平閱讀的差異n 視線與思維同步的問題l 紙張和屏幕的差異n 對比度差異所帶來的視覺疲勞感n 是否可以做標記帶來的記憶效果差異n 托福閱讀的內容特征This section measures your ability to understand academic passages in English. (Reading section directions in the actual test)u 托福考試的話題特征Campus life Academic issue 閱讀只考學術文章。科普文章和TOFEL的專業詞匯比例一般都在左右，GRE在左右Questions are intended to measure your understanding of the passages in terms of the following: Vocabulary and grammar Major ideas and important information Relative importance of ideas Relationship of ideas to each other Organization of ideas and concepts. (Reading section directions in the actual test)u 詞匯l 習慣性認知的誤區：提高詞匯量就等于提高了閱讀能力。l 托福的詞匯考查方式查看缺陷解決方案語言能力的基礎詞匯認知一詞多義詞匯推斷u 語法l 習慣性認知的誤區，語法不好，英語同樣能學好；l 語法的重要性，語法之于語言正如法律之如社會；l 托福閱讀如何進行語法考查？n 輸出能力（口語和寫作）中的語法考查檢查是否主動犯錯。n 輸入能力（閱讀和聽力）中的語法考查通過語法設置障礙解釋成績：在ETS保留的時間是年，在學校申請日期截止日之前考完即可。科普閱讀建議：大百科全書（大英和微軟百科，還有w i ki 百科）Discovery，國家地理，等u 主題l 習慣性認知的錯誤，主題能用一兩句話（尤其是各段首句）簡單概括。l 托福閱讀文章的新特點：標題。l 托福文章的主題類型特征Single-focus 一個主題，多個方面Multi-focus 多個主題，多個方面u 托福文章主題的考察方式to make a summary the topic of a paragraphu 重要信息l 細節信息n 習慣性認知的錯誤：細節是具體的描述性內容，是零散無關的n 細節作為重要信息所包含的內容general statement 首要 some related details(1) 主題:辨析文章的主要觀點,并與局部小觀點區分;辨析段落主題.(注:所有文章都有標題)(2) 細節:概括性信息的把握并判別具體信息的真偽- TRUE? FALSE? NOT GIVEN?l 細節信息的考察方式認知推斷l 推斷信息n 習慣性認知的錯誤：推斷信息和細節信息等同n 區分事實信息（Statement）和推斷信息（Inference）n 內容推斷和態度推斷n 推斷信息的推理邏輯u 信息優先級l 習慣性認知的誤區：在英語閱讀中，我們從來不關心信息優先級。l 關注信息優先級的方法：n 興趣驅動（Interest-driven）n 知識驅動（Knowledge-driven）n 邏輯驅動（Logic-driven）u 關系與結構l 習慣性認知的誤區：英語閱讀中我們過多地關注了信息本身，卻忽略了信息之間的關系關聯信息被離散化。l 不同層次的信息關系，句子和句子的關系，段落和段落的關系。l 信息結構與思維框架（Mental Framework） M.F. organizationM.F. ideas(Major/Minor) priorityrelationship essential/ non essential 樹形結構，后續文章要比前面有進步。Opportunities and CompetitorsGrowth, reproduction, and daily metabolism all require an organism to expend energy. The expenditure of energy is essentially a process of budgeting, just as finances are budgeted. If all of ones money is spent on clothes, there may be none left to buy food or go to the movies. Similarly, a plant or animal cannot squander all its energy on growing a big body if none would be left over for reproduction, for this is the surest way to extinction.All organisms, therefore, allocate energy to growth, reproduction, maintenance and storage. No choice is involved; this allocation comes as part of the genetic package from the parents. Maintenance for a given body design of an organism is relatively constant. Storage is important, but ultimately that energy will be used for maintenance, reproduction, or growth. Therefore the principal differences in energy allocation are likely to be between growth and reproduction.Almost all of an organisms energy can be diverted to reproduction, with very little allocated to building the body. Organisms at this extreme are “opportunists”. At this other extreme are “competitors”, almost all of whose resources are invested in building a huge body, with a bare minimum allocated to reproduction.Dandelions are good examples of opportunists. Their seed heads raised just high enough above the ground to catch the wind, the plants are no bigger than they need be, their stems are hollow, and all the rigidity comes from their water content. Thus, a minimum investment has been made in the body that becomes a platform for seed dispersal. This very short-lived plants reproduce prolifically, that is to say they provided a constant rain of seed in the neighborhood of parents plants. A new plant will spring up whether a seed falls on a suitable soil surface but because they do not build big bodies, they cannot compete with other plants for space, water or sunlight. These plants are termed “opportunists” because they rely on their seeds falling into settings where competing 筆記區B.G.1st organism expend energy budgetB.G.2nd organism allocate energy Genetic package SM.G.RDifference:=growth and reproduction3rd (Topic) Opp := energy : RG Comp:=energy :Rallocate第三段由difference開始展開。本文使用了比較分類，對比等方法The word squander in the passage is closest in meaning to(A) extend (B) transform (C)activate (D)waste2. The word none in the passage refers to(A) food (B)plant of animal (C)energy (D)big body3. In paragraph 1, the author explains the concept of energy expenditure by(A) identifying types of organisms that became extinct (B) comparing the scientific concept to a familiar human experience(C) arguing that most organisms conserve rather than expend energy(D) describing the processes of growth, reproduction, and metabolism 用budget來比喻According to the passage, the classification of organisms as “opportunists” or “competitors” is determined by(A) how the genetic information of an organism is store and maintained(B) the way in which the organism invests its energy resources(C) whether the climate to which the organism lives is mild or extreme(D) the variety of natural resources the organism consumes in its environment5. The word dispersal in the passage is closest in meaning to(A) development (B)growth (C)distribution (D)protection6. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.(A) Because their seeds grow in places where competing plants are no longer preserve, dandelions are classified as opportunists.(B) Dandelions are called opportunists because they contribute to the natural processes of erosion and the creation of gaps in the forest canopy.(C) The term “opportunists” applies to plants whose seeds fall in places where they compete with seed of other plants.(D) The term “opportunists” applies to plants whose falling seeds are removed by natural processes.7. The word massive in the passage is closest in meaning to(A) huge (B)ancient (C)common (D)successful8.All of the following are mentioned in paragraph 7 as contribution to the longevity of oak tree EXCEPT(A) the capacity to create shade(B) leaves containing tannin(C) the ability to withstand mild droughts and fires(D) the large number of acorns the tree produces 9.According to the passage, oak trees are considered competitors because(A) they grow in areas free of opportunities(B) they spend more energy on their leaves, trunks and roots than on their acorns(C) their population tends to increase or decrease irregular cycles(D) unlike other organisms, they do not need much water or sunlight10. In paragraph 7, the author suggests that most species of organisms(A) are primarily opportunists(B) are primarily competitors(C) begin as opportunists and evolved into competitors(D) have some characteristics of opportunists and some of competitors11. Look at the four square () that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage where would be the sentence best.Such episodic event will cause a population of dandelions, for example, to vary widely.Click on a square () add the sentence to the passage12. Directions: Select the appropriate phrases from the answer choices and match them to the type of organisms to which they relate. TWO of the answer choices will NOT be used. This question is worth 4 points.多使用已經做完的題目的信息來判斷，第六和第八題對此題解題很有幫助。Answer choices:(A) Vary frequently the amount of energy they spend in body maintenance.(B) Having mechanisms for protecting themselves from predation.-c(C) Succeed in locations where other organism have been removed. -o(D) Have relatively short live spans.-o(E) Invest energy in the growth of large, strong structure.-c(F) Have populations that are unstable in response to climate conditions. -o(G) Can rarely find suitable soil for reproduction.(H) Produce individuals that can withstand changes in the environmental conditions. -c(I) Reproduce in large members. -o 閱讀的本質和自己的狀態知己知彼，百戰不殆閱讀的本質1. 獲取有效信息（找到信息與信息之間的關聯）2. 消除閱讀障礙我們的狀態n 閱讀速度30單詞/分 60單詞/分90單詞/分120單詞/分 150單詞/分或者以上n 水平閱讀中的思維同步完全無法同步，必須停止閱讀才能思考 可以分同步，有明顯聲讀現象大部分可同步，偶爾有回讀現象 完全可同步，無回讀現象n 水平閱讀的視覺疲勞感 明顯，感覺無法繼續一般，有疲勞感但還可以堅持 從狀態到缺陷層次化的問題模型n 水平閱讀的記憶能力 基本無任何記憶零星記憶部分詞或者詞組 有記憶碎片但是無規律有記憶碎片并且有部分關聯 有關聯記憶信息n 閱讀耐力（以出現走神現象為準）10分鐘左右 20分鐘左右 40分鐘左右 60分鐘左右或更長 n 單詞大多數不認識認識一半左右 大多數認識 完全無障礙n 語法完全不重視且沒有系統學習過 想學但是不知道如何學學過但是效果不好學過且效果不錯 有效且精通n 句子對句子結構完全不了解 對句子結構有一定了解并能進行簡單的句子分析對句子結構非常了解，并可以進行所有句子的結構分析n 主題完全不能把握 隨機性較強，視文章而定 基本能把握 完全沒問題n 重要信息u 細節信息對細節信息概念理解有錯誤 概念理解正確但是不知道如何把握知道概念和如何獲得信息、偶而有遺漏 非常準確地把握細節信息u 推斷信息對推斷信息概念理解有錯誤 概念理解正確但是不知道如何把握知道概念和如何獲得信息，偶而有遺漏 非常準確的把握推斷信息n 信息優先級從未關注過 刻意關注 自然關注n 關系和結構從未關注過 刻意關注 自然關注 從狀態到缺陷層次化的問題模型Hierarchical passage-paragraph-sentence-wordWord:認知和推斷Sentence: 句子的最小表義單位，Paragraph: 結構的獲取Passage: 對于relation的把握通過使用上面表格不斷對自己修正和提高，查漏補缺。 面對缺陷，我們應該怎樣.自由筆記區：成績好勤奮聰明？不要鞏俐，踏踏實實走好每一步，托福的學習過程本身就是一種享受，是提高自己能力的一個過程。一個東西，盛傳很有功效，可是一直沒有看到真正的效果，還是沒有用的東西。背單詞只有一個方法：就是死記硬背。我們建立在死記硬背基礎上，但是我們希望把方法變得更加有效。自然記憶的好處：可以記得更牢，記憶過程不明顯，高頻率重復，模擬一個過程，不斷在大腦中重現。沒有刻意去做卻做到了。建議有5 條。 基本缺陷的解決單詞、語法和資料的選擇n 單詞缺陷的解決方案u 詞匯書的選擇l TOEFL考試需要我們掌握多少單詞？l 我們自己有多少單詞？l 我們需要什么樣的詞匯書？四級詞匯書詞匯配對表TOEFL詞匯書： 比如李笑來的21天；玉梅的詞匯書；戴云寫的ibt 10000單詞（實際70008000）u 詞典的選擇l 托福考試需要什么樣的詞典？l 推薦的詞典朗文 2800字解釋了所有的東西牛津American history dictionary文曲星: 別用這個反查意思，用google好了。u 詞匯記憶方法l 兩種記憶方式n 機械記憶n 自然記憶l 單詞在記憶過程中的狀態n 形同陌路n 似曾相識n 一見如故n 刻骨銘心l 單詞記憶的方法原則：高頻率重復1. 使用零散時間背單詞2. 重復周期15天，大量進行重復 300 每個單詞給510秒，遍數要多，不要手寫，模擬自然記憶3. 閱讀和背單詞相結合，閱讀難度控制在生詞率35不認識的單詞，盡量不要去想是什么意思。等讀完之后去查，寫在word本上4. 視覺刺激和聽覺刺激相結合老俞的單詞串講注意記憶發音例：腦白金廣告n 語法缺陷的解決方案u 語法書的選擇朗文英語語法 劍橋中級英語語法English in use(看中文版)托福ibt語法精要（戴云）科林朗茨語法 注意：當成手冊去查u 包含且僅包含語言使用過程中的所有因素詞匯、句子、語篇、語境、交流方式。1. 老托福真題首選（寄托，太傻，鯉魚，小馬過河，emule等網站均可下載到）2. Discovery3. National Geography4. 大百科全書：微軟大百科大英百科wiki百科5. 原版教材6. 英美文化教程7. MIT的Open course(帶視頻)8. TTC教育公司錄制的美國上課實錄，選擇一個就刻意聽很長時間，注意聽邏輯結構9. 21世紀，China daily,英語世界等雜志10. 每天半小時堅持是上網看English news 缺陷能力的解決篇章和句子n 結構化閱讀方法u 托福文章的結構特征1. 結構主體（支撐）2. 細節主體（填充）正如葉脈和葉肉，主題句：能夠引出新內容的句子（每段的前幾句）主題段：最早出現和文章標題相關聯的段落(文章的前幾段)論文的結構：嵌套三層次Intro.(B.G.或者topic)Body (sub-topic - analysis + evidenceSub-topic - analysis + evidence)Conclusion: topic 的重復（結構）立論：同意觀點；駁論:反駁觀點u 快速筆記方法克服記憶能力的缺陷l 回憶：思維框架的概念l 快速筆記的作用n 代替垂直閱讀時的勾畫n 輔助思維框架形成并輔助記憶n 信息索引l 快速筆記的內容1. 結構主體的核心詞2. 時間和數字（注：同步記錄時間及相應的事件； 一律記錄為數字）3. 人名地名專有名詞（使用首字母標記）4. 舉例的主體5. 新概念及局部核心的概念6. 重要的邏輯關系l 記錄邏輯關系的符號體系 因果關系： A-B 比較關系：A B 類比關系：AB 對比關系：A B自由筆記區不要試圖記下所有的東西理論分析evidence讀對了以后才能讀快。快速動態信息獲取聽力邏輯訓練：AB對話猜想Predicting-skimming 有詳略選擇的閱讀方法-note-taking把握general statements閱讀以后產生期待，驗證期待，繼續驗證期待，滾動往下 邏輯如果驗證失敗，修正期待，繼續閱讀，產生期待。這是閱讀理解的過程。這就是帶著問題看文章。閱讀和口語的關系: (1) 規范口語的邏輯(2) 提供口語表達的素材理論，闡述，例子 最高級 ：most A 否定： 分類： ,或者 表格 定義: A:= 或者 A 舉例：e.g i.e 過程和線索：l 筆記過程的兩條附加規則 分段記錄 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 中英文結合 l 對筆記的評價體系 擁有清晰的邏輯脈絡 過程和線索：根據體系可以對文章進行有效的復述l 結構化閱讀過程中的邏輯控制PREDICTING 閱讀過程是一個產生期待和驗證期待