。(一) The Victorian Agen General Introductiona) Period an Eras in English historyAnglo-Saxon6551066Norman10661154Plantagenet11541485Tudor14851603Elizabethan15581603Stuart16031714Jacobean16031625Caroline16251649Interregnum16491660Restoration16601688Georgian17141830Victorian18371901Edwardian19011910World War I19141918Interwar19181939World War II19391945Modern1945presentn Brief intro:The Victorian Period revolves around the political career of Queen Victoria. She was crowned in 1837 and died in 1901 (which put a definite end to her political career). A great deal of change took place during this period-brought about because of the Industrial Revolution; so its not surprising that the literature of the period is often concerned with social reform. As Thomas Carlyle (1795-1881) wrote, The time for levity, insincerity, and idle babble and play-acting, in all kinds, is gone by; it is a serious, grave time.b) Victoria Period1) Time Spann The Victorian Period revolves around the political career of Queen Victoria. n A new era really began with the passage of Reform Bill 1832 and closed at the end of Boer War in 1902.2) Three phasesn The early Victorian period (183048): 多事之秋(A Time of Troubles)It saw the opening of Britains first railway and its first Reform Parliament, but it was also a time of economic distress.n The mid-Victorian period (184870): 經濟繁榮和宗教分歧的時期（Economic Prosperity and Religious Controversy）It was not free of harassing problems, it was a time of prosperity, optimism, and stability.n The later period (18701901) : 由盛到衰過程的時期（Decay of Victorian Values）The costs of Empire became increasingly apparent, and England was confronted with growing threats to its military and economic preeminence.c) Queen Victoria and Victorian Tempern Victoria was born in 1819.She came to the throne in 1837(aged 18), after the death of her uncle William IV, crowned in 1838 and died in 1901. n She reigned for exactly 63 years, 7 months, 2 days (June 20, 1837 - January 22, 1901), longer than any other British monarch. n Her 9 children and 42 grandchildren tying them together and earning her the nickname the grandmother of Europe.n Exemplifies Victorian qualities: earnestness, moral responsibility, domestic proprietyn The Victorian Period was an age of transitionn An age characterized by energy and high moral purpose1819年生于倫敦,1837年繼位成為英國女王。到19世紀末，維多利亞女王由于擁有許多歐洲皇室的皇親國戚，被人稱為“歐洲的祖母”。1897年英國為她在位60周年舉行慶典，成為英國歷史上統治時間最長的女王。由于這一時期英國迅速地向外擴張，建立了龐大的殖民地，因此被稱為“日不落帝國”。1901年1月22日，維多利亞女王去世。d) Four Featuresn The long struggle of the Anglo-Saxons for personal liberty is definitely settled, and democracy becomes the established order of the day.n Because it is an age of democracy, it is an age of popular education, of religious tolerance, of growing brotherhood, and of profound social unrest(動蕩).n It is an age of comparative peace.n The Victorian Age is especially remarkable because of its rapid progress in all the arts and sciences and in mechanical inventions.n Historical Background1. Societyn A Time of ChangeA great deal of change took place during this period-brought about because of the Industrial Revolution; so its not surprising that the literature of the period is often concerned with social reform.1) London becomes most important city in Europe2) Population of London expands from two million to six million3) Shift from ownership of land to modern urban economy4) Impact of industrialism5) Increase in wealth6) Worlds foremost imperial power7) Victorian people suffered from anxiety, a sense of being displaced persons in an age of technological advances.2. Economyn Colonial ExpansionThe most powerful of the British Empire at the time of territory across 5 continents with a total area of up to 33,500,000 square kilometers, the United Kingdom is 137 times that of the total global area of 1 / 4; its colony with a population of about 400,000,000, of the total population of the colony 75 %. From the Earth near the Canadian Arctic, the Antarctic to the vicinity of Argentina, from the Congo River in Africa, Asia, South-East Asia have ranged from the size of the British colony.n World FactoryTo the mid-19th century, the United Kingdom to become the worlds first industrialized countries, which export a large number of manufactured goods, imports of raw materials and a large number of agricultural and sideline products. Britain became the worlds factory, the economic center. In 1851, the number of British merchant account for nearly half of world merchant shipping, industrial products occupied 50% of the world market, and production of pig iron accounted for 53% of the worlds coal output accounted for 50% of the world.n ImperialismThe sun never sets: “Russia and the North American plains is our corn, Chicago and Odessa is our granary, Canada and the Baltic Sea is our forests, our Australian sheep farms, Argentina and North American prairie to the west of our cattle grazing, and sent Peruvian silver, gold sent Australia and South Africa, India and China has provided us with tea, East Indies to provide us with coffee, sugar and spices. 3. Culture n UTILITARIANISM1) Definition:Utilitarianism is the idea that the moral worth of an action is determined solely by its utility in providing happiness or pleasure as summed among all sentient(有知覺的)beings. It is thus a form of consequentialism, meaning that the moral worth of an action is determined by its outcome.2) Simplified:We decide how to act, and then justify our actions, by evaluating which alternatives are likely to result in the greatest good.3) Principle of Utility:One should always act as to bring about the “greatest good for the greatest number”4) Chinese explanation:功利主義認為人應該做出能“達到最大善”的行為，所謂最大善的計算則必須依靠此行為所涉及的每個個體之苦樂感覺的總和，其中每個個體都被視為具相同份量，且快樂與痛苦是能夠換算的，痛苦僅是“負的快樂”。功利主義不考慮一個人行為的動機與手段，僅考慮一個行為的結果對最大快樂值的影響。能增加最大快樂值的即是善；反之即為惡。5) Representative:Derived from the ideas of Jeremy Bentham杰里米邊沁（英國哲學家） and his disciple James Mill, the father of John Stuart Mill.Rationalist唯物主義者 test of value.6) Effect: Almost everything was put to the test by the criterion of utility, that is, the extent to which it could promote the material happiness. This theory held a special appeal to the middle-classed industrialists, whose greed drove them to exploiting workers to the utmost and brought greater suffering and poverty to the working mass.Utilitarianism failed to recognize peoples spiritual needs.n CHANGES IN IDEOLOGY意識形態1) Science and technology developed very fast. New inventions and discoveries in geology, astronomy, biology and anthropology drastically changed peoples life.2) German philosophers such as Ludwig Feuerbach and Comte exerted great influences over British ideological field.3) Charles Darwin(達爾文）Origin of Species (1859) “The Survival of the Fittest” and The Descent of Man (1871) shook the theoretical basis of the conventional religious faith. People begin to question faith and long-held beliefs about humanity.4) KARL MARX（馬克思）Theory of Karl Marx, The Communist Manifesto(1847),The Capital (1867)5) THE RELIGIOUS COLLISIONScience and technology developed very fast. New inventions and discoveries in geology, astronomy, biology and anthropology drastically changed peoples life.n Definitions of several terms1. The Reform Act 1832The Representation of the People Act 1832, or Reform Act 1832, was an Act of Parliament (2 & 3 Will. IV) that introduced wide-ranging changes to the electoral system of England and Wales. According to its preamble, the act was designed to take effectual Measures for correcting divers Abuses that have long prevailed in the Choice of Members to serve in the Commons House of Parliament.1832年改革法案（英文：Reform Act 1832）是英國在1832年通過的關于擴大下議院選民基礎的法案。該議案改變了下議院由保守派獨占的狀態，加入了中產階級的勢力，是英國議會史的一次重大改革。n 背景自工業革命以后，新工工業城市崛起。但英國下議院1688年后再沒有新的市鎮取得議會代表權，而一些所謂“衰廢市鎮”（Rotten Boroughs），僅有數戶居住、無人居住、甚至在地理上消失的地方竟擁有在下議院市鎮代議士；反之新工業城市往往聚居數以萬計人口卻無代議士代表。除議會議席分配失衡外，議員的民意代表性也不充分，在英格蘭及愛爾蘭只有百分之五的成年男性選舉權，蘇格蘭200萬人口中更僅有3000人有選舉權。而且選舉方式上采取公開投票法，選民無法對自己的投票取向保密，很多時候屈服于有勢力人士的威迫利誘，被迫投票給他們。n 內容1. 依舊保留1710年以來有關下議院議員的不動產條件，所以議員出身仍以地主貴族為主。2. 下議院議席分配將郡議員人數由188席增加至253席，市代表由465席減至399席，這些市都曾是在中古時代的大都市，所以在國會有自己的市代表，但隨著時代改變而荒廢，故此議席需要減少。其中，五十六個衰廢城市人口低于二千，失去單獨派出代議士的資格，改為歸入郡區選區；三十二個人口介于二千至四千人的城市，議席由二席減至一席。空出的143席中，英格蘭郡區得65席，蘇格蘭得8席，愛爾蘭得5席，而因工業革命新興的工業城市得65席。3. 選民資格亦有開放。在市鎮中，年收入在十鎊以上的房戶主和年付十鎊以上房產租稅者，在郡鄉中，年付十鎊田土租稅的六十年長期田地租用者、年付五十鎊田土租稅的短期田地租用者及年付兩鎊地稅的自有土地者皆享投票權。選民總數由五十萬增加到八十一萬三千，更多中上層的中產階級取得選舉權，選民占全國人口百分之三左右。n 影響舊有地主及舊有南部城市商人的勢力受打擊；增加了因工業革命而興起的中北部城市（如曼徹斯特、利物浦）商人的參政機會；郡代表的增加有助平衡不同地方勢力對選舉的影響；群眾對下議院的影響力上升，同時此法案也開創了日后各議會改革法案的先河。2. New Poor Law 18343. The Chartist Movement (1836-1848)n Background :1) The development of Industrial Revolution and the industrial capitalism, the working class had organized in a strong organization. 2) After the Reform Act 1832,the capitalist class had the rights to vote, but not to the working class.3) The working class was very poor and their working conditions were very bad.In 1838, a Peoples Charter was drawn up by radicals in London Working Mens Association.背景：1) 工業革命的展開和工業資本主義的發展，工人階級力量的壯大； 2) 1832年的英國議會改革，使工業資產階級獲得了選舉權。工人階級卻被排斥于議會之外；3) 1838年，倫敦工人協會的工人領袖與議會的激進派議員共同草擬了一份請愿書，并命名為“人民憲章”。n Chartism nChartism was a Victorian era working class movement for political reform in Britain between 1838 and 1848. It takes its name from the Peoples Charter of 1838. The term Chartism is the umbrella name for numerous loosely-coordinated local groups, often named Working Mens Association, articulating grievances in many cities from 1837. Its peak activity came in 1839, 1842 and 1848. It began among skilled artisans in small shops, such as shoemakers, printers, and tailors. The movement was more aggressive in areas with many distressed handloom workers, such as in Lancashire and the Midlands.It began as a petition movement which tried to mobilize moral force, but soon attracted men who advocated strikes, General strikes and physical violence, such as Feargus OConnor and known as physical force chartists. One faction issued the Peoples Charter in 1838 and it was widely adopted by the movement. n Peoples Charter 1838n The Peoples Charter In 1837, six Members of Parliament and six working men, including William Lovett, (from the London Working Mens Association, set up in 1836) formed a committee, which then published the Peoples Charter in 1838. This stipulated the six main aims of the movement as:a) A vote for every man twenty-one years of age, of sound mind, and not undergoing punishment for crime.b) The secret ballot. - To protect the elector in the exercise of his vote.c) No property qualification for members of Parliament - thus enabling the constituencies to return the man of their choice, be he rich or poor.d) Payment of members, - thus enabling an honest tradesman, working man, or other person, to serve a constituency, when taken from his business to attend to the interests of the Country.e) Equal Constituencies, - securing the same amount of representation for the same number of electors, instead of allowing small constituencies to swamp the votes of large ones.f) Annual parliaments,- thus presenting the most effectual check to bribery and intimidation, since though a constituency might be bought once in seven years (even with the ballot), no purse could buy a constituency (under a system of universal suffrage) in each ensuing twelve-month; and since members, when elected for a year only, would not be able to defy and betray their constituents as now.Eventually, the first five goals were achieved, but that happened long after Chartism was a spent force.Chartism flourished in hard times, and faded during prosperity. Political elites saw the movement as dangerous and refused to negotiate with it or deal with its demands. The government permanently crushed the movement in 1848. The movement produced no immediate reforms, but it did attract the attention of the working class, which was not allowed to vote. Historians see Chartism as both a continuation of the 18th century fight against corruption and as a new stage in demands for democracy in an industrial society.n Chinese versionl 人民憲章的六點要求：（1）凡年滿21歲、身體健康而未被處過徒刑的男子，都有選舉權。（2）無記名秘密投票。（3）議會議員不應有財產資格或其他任何限制。（4）議員應領取薪金。（5）按照各地區選民的人數平均分配選舉區。（6）議會每年改選一次。l 內容： 體現了工人擴大民主權利的要求，包括選舉權，取消財產資格限制，議會參與權等。l 性質：斗爭矛頭指向資產階級的政權和法律，爭取工人的政治權利，具有強烈的政治性質。l 意義：1838年5月，這個請愿書以法案的形式正式公布，它的公布標志著“憲章運動”的開始。l 實質：是在資產階級民主的旗幟下為爭取工人階級的政治權利而斗爭。4. Boer Warn Victorian Literature1. Genres1)The novel became the most widely read and the most vital and challenging expression of progressive thought. Charles Dickens, William Makepeace Thackeray, Charlotte Bronte, Emily Bronte2) The great prose writers in the Victorian age brought English prose to a very high point in both prose art and literary criticism. Carlyle, Huxley3) The famous poets in the Victorian period were: Alfred Tennyson, Robert Browning2. Featuresn In this period, the novel became the most widely read & the most vital & challenging expression of progressive thought.n While sticking to the principle of faithful representation of the 18th-century realist novel, novelists in this period carried their duty forward to the criticism of the society & the defense of the mass. n Although writing from different points of view & with different techniques, they shared one thing in common, that is, they were all concerned about the fate of the common people. They were angry at the inhuman social institutions, the decaying social morality as represented by the money-worship & Utilitarianism & the widespread misery, poverty & injustice. n Their truthful depiction of peoples life & bitter & strong criticism of the society had done much in awakening the public consciousness to the social problems & in the actual improvement of the society. n Victorian literature, in general, truthfully represents the reality & spirit of the age. The high-spirited vitality, the down-to-earth earnestness, the good-natured humor & unbounded imagination are all unprecedented. In almost every genre it paved the way for the coming century, where its spirits, values & experiments are to witness their bumper harvest. 3. Critical Realismn Time background: The English critical realism of the 19th century flourished in the forties and in the beginning of fifties. Humanism（Renaissance） Classical literature Enlightenment Romanticism 批判現實主義文學之所以產生于歐洲十九世紀三十年代，是因為這時“資產階級在它已取得了統治的地方把一切封建的、宗法的和田園詩般的關系都破壞了。它使人和人之間除了赤裸裸的利害關系，除了冷酷無情的現金交易，就再也沒有任何別的聯系了。”（馬克思、恩格斯共產黨宣言）n TERM: The attempt in literature and art to represent life as it really is, without sentimentalizing or idealizing it.n Time span: English critical realism of the 19th century flourished in the forties and in the early fiftiesn MAJOR FORM OF EXPRESSION: the noveln PRINCIPLE OF WRITING : to portray life as it is, truthfully, exactly, objectively.n MAJOR TECHNIQUES: humor and satire (both the lower class and the upper classes)n THEMES AND CHARACTERISTICS:1) A satirical portrayal of the bourgeoisie and all the ruling classes2) profound sympathy for common people3) Realistic portrayal of typical characters under typical circumstancesn PLOT: 1) Start with a powerful exposure of the ugliness of the bourgeois world2) Close in a much too coincidental happy ending or an impotent compromisen STRENGTH: Reveals the corrupting influence of the rule of cash upon human nature (root: democracy& humanism)n LIMITATION:1) It did not find a way to eradicate social evils and was unable to find a good solution to the social contradictions.2) The chief tendency in their works is not of revolution but rather of reformism.n CONTRIBUTION1) Expand the influences of the novel as a kind of literary genre.2) Make use of the broad canvas of the novel for full and detailed representations of social and political events, and of the fate of individuals and of whole social classes. 3) The realistic novels of the 19th century went a step further than those of the 18th century 4) Pictured the conflicts between separate individuals who stood for definite social class 5) Showed the broad social conflicts over and above the fate of mere individuals 6) the epic of the bourgeois society.4. Victorian Novelistsn Charles Dickens (1812-1870)1. 3 periods of his literary career:1) 1836-1841: marked for youthful optimism: all the evils of capitalist world would be remedied if only men treated each other with kindliness, justice, and sympathetic understanding.The Pickwick papersOliver TwistNicholas NicklebyThe Old Curiosity Shop2) 1842-1850: a period of excitement and irritation. trip to America. Before the trip, he thought of America as a world in which there were no class division. During the trip, saw the rule of dollar, the corruptive influence of wealth and power, vulgar selfishness., optimism was shaken.American NotesMartin ChuzzlewitDombey and SonDavid Copperfield3) 1851-1870: works show intensifying pessimism.Bleak HouseHard TimesGreat ExpectationsA Tale of Two CitiesOur Mutual Friend2. Features of his novels1) Offer a most complete and realistic picture of the English bourgeois society of his age. The reflect the protest of the people against capitalist exploitation, criticize the vices of the capitalist society.2) As a petty bourgeois intellectual, could not overstep the limits of his class. He believed in the moral self-perfection of the wicked properties classes. He failed to see the necessity of a bitter struggle of the oppressed agains