PhoneticsandPhonology

Chapter2ByQuan

LihongProductionofsounds

Whatsoundscanwemake?Humanbeingsarecapableofmakingallkindsofsounds,butonlysomeofthesesoundshavebecomeunitsinthelanguagesystem.Theclassofpossiblespeechsoundsisnotonlyfinite,butalsouniversal.Anyhumanisabletopronouncethesesounds,regardlessofracialorculturalbackground.

Phoneticsstudieshowspeechsoundsareproduced產生,transmitted傳遞,andperceived感知.

SubfieldsinphoneticsArticulatoryPhonetics

(發音語音學)isthestudyoftheproductionofspeechsounds.AcousticPhonetics

(聲學語音學)isthestudyofthephysicalpropertiesofspeechsounds.PerceptualorAuditoryPhonetics

(聽覺語音學)isconcernedwiththeperceptionofspeechsounds.AmorespecificdefinitionofphoneticsPhoneticsisthescientificstudyofspeechsoundsandisconcernedwithdefiningandclassifyingspeechsoundsaccordingtohowtheyareproduced,andprovidesmethodsfortheirdescription,classificationandtranscription.ArticulationofSounds

Whatvocalorgansdoweusewhenproducingsounds?)

(2.1.1)Awiderangeofphysicalactivityisinvolvedintheproductionofthespeechsoundsinhumanlanguage.Vocalorgansoftenarticulateormoveagainsteachotherintheproductionofspeech.Vocalorgansrefertoallthepartsofthehumanbodythatarerelatedtospeechproduction.

VocalOrgans(3resonatingcavities)articulatoryapparatuspharyngealcavitythroatOralcavitymouthNasalcavitynoseLungs肺Trachea氣管VocalFolds(withintheLarynx喉)Pharynx咽NasalCavity鼻腔Oralcavity口腔Positionofthevocalfolds（聲帶）:apart---voicelessPositionofthevocalfolds:closetogether,vibrate---voicedPositionofthevocalfolds:

totallyclosed---glottalstopTheTranscriptionofSoundsPhoneticianstrytotranscribethesoundsasaccuratelyaspossible,i.e.byrecordingallthearticulatorydetailsthatexistinspeech.Sincethesixteenthcentury,effortshavebeenmadetodeviseauniversalsystemfortranscribingthespeechsounds.InternationalPhoneticAlphabetTheideaofestablishingaphoneticalphabetwasfirstproposedbytheDanishgrammarianandphoneticianOttoJespersen(1860-1943)in1886,andthefirstversionoftheInternationalPhoneticAlphabet(theIPAchart)waspublishedinAugust1888.(p.27)The

International

Phonetic

Alphabet

(Revisedto2005)P28WhatisthedifferencebetweentheminEnglish?Consonantsareproducedbyaclosureinthevocaltract,orbyanarrowingwhichissomarkedthataircannotescapewithoutproducingaudiblefriction.Vowelsareproducedwithoutsuch“stricture”(限制；約束）sothatairescapesinarelativelyunimpededwaythroughthemouthornose.(Crystal,1997:154)**Thedistinctionbetweenthemliesintheobstructionofairstream.

2.2ConsonantsvsvowelsDescriptionofconsonants

Howdoyoudescribeandclassifytheconsonantssuchas[p],[b],[s],[z]?Whendescribingindividualsoundsegments,phoneticiansandlinguistsoftenemploytwoparameterstoexaminehowsoundsarearticulated:mannerofarticulation

andplaceofarticulation.(P30)

Themannerofarticulation:referstowaysinwhicharticulationcanbeaccomplished(p.30).Theplaceofarticulation:referstothepointwhereaconsonantismade.(whereinthevocaltractthereisapproximation,narrowing,ortheobstructionofair.(theplaceofobstruction)聲道的哪些部位出現靠攏、變窄或產生氣流阻礙。MannerofArticulation

Stops/plosives（閉塞音或破裂音）

suchas[p],[b],[t],[d],[k],[g]—completeclosureofthearticulators,airstreamcompletelyobstructed.Nasals[m][n]

[]---velum（軟腭）lowered,air-streamthroughthenoseFricatives（摩擦音）suchas[f],[v],[s],[z],[θ],[e],[∫],[?],[h]—closeapproximation,partiallyobstructed,turbulentairflow,audiblefriction.(4)Affricates（塞擦音）suchas[t∫],[d?]—astop+africative（5）lateral邊音/l/(6)trill顫音/r/(7)tapandflap閃音（p.31)MannerofArticulationPlaceofArticulation

Theplaceofarticulationisanotherwaytoobservehowsoundsarearticulated.Whendescribingtheplaceofarticulation,weusuallyconsidertheplacewithinthevocaltractwherethearticulatorsformastructure.11placesofarticulation

(1)Bilabial雙唇音[p],[b],[m],[w](2)Labio-dental唇齒音[f],[v](3)Dental齒音[θ],[?](4)Alveolar齒齦音[t],[d],[s],[z],[n],[l],[r](5)Palatal腭音[∫],[?],[t∫],[d?],[j](6)Velar軟腭音[k],[g],[?](p.32)(7)Glottal喉音[h]Placesofarticulation

(P32,33)Vowels

Intheproductionofvowels,thereisnoobstructionofairasisthecasewithconsonants.Fourparameterstodescribevowels:(1)theheightoftongueraising(high,mid,low);(2)thepositionofthehighestpartofthetongue(front,central,back);(3)thelengthortensenessofthevowel(tensevs.lax(松懈的)orlongvs.short);(4)lip-rounding(roundedvs.unrounded).Table2.2.Englishvowels（P.36）

DescriptionofEnglishvowels（p.36)P36ClassificationofEnglishvowels

Pureormonophthongvowels;Diphthongs;

triphthongs:diphthong+schwa

[?]E.g.[ai?]inwireDescriptionofEnglishvowels

Exercise:[i:][?][?]Key：[i:]highfronttenseunroundedvowel[?]midcentrallaxunroundedvowel[u]highbacklaxroundedvowel2.3FromPhoneticstoPhonology

Phonologyisthestudyofthesoundpatternsinhumanlanguage,withitsprimaryaimbeingtodiscovertheprinciplesthatgovernthewaysoundsareorganizedinlanguages,andtoexplainthevariationsthatoccur.Acommonmethodologyofphonologyistobeginbyanalyzinganindividuallanguage,todetermineitsphonologicalstructure,i.e.whichsoundunitsareusedandhowtheypattern.Thencomparedifferentsoundsystems,develophypothesesabouttherulesinparticulargrouplanguages,andultimatelyinalllanguages.

2.3FromPhoneticstoPhonology2.3.1coarticulationandphonetictranscriptionsCoarticulation:Whenasoundisinfluencedbyitsneighboringsounds,wecalltheprocesscoarticulation.協同發音Anticipatorycoarticulation:Ifasoundisinfluencedbyitsfollowingsound,itiscalledanticipatorycoarticulation.先期協同發音E.g.lamb[l?m]–nasalizationPreservativecoarticulation:Ifasoundisinfluencedbyitsprecedingsound,itiscalledpreservativecoarticulation.后滯協同發音E.g.map[m?p]-nasalizationAbroadtranscriptionistheonethatonlytakesaccountofthesounddifferencesthatareimportanttodistinguishwordsfromeachotherinalanguage.Abroadtranscriptionisthetranscriptionwithasimplesetofsymbols.E.g.Thesubstitutionof

p

for

t

doesmakeadifferenceofword:pin/pin/andtin/tin/aredifferentwordsinEnglish.BroadandNarrowTranscription（p.38）

Anarrowtranscriptionistheuseofmorespecificsymbolstoshowmorephoneticdetail.Anarrowtranscriptionisatranscriptionwithlettersymbolstogetherwithdiacritics.E.g.lamb[?]—[?](nasalization);peak[p?]:voiceless;speak[p]:voicedPhonemePhonemeisthesmallestunitofsoundinalanguage,anditcausesameaningdifferenceinlanguage.Phonemesaretranscribedusingthenormalsetofphoneticsymbols,butwithinslantlinesinsteadofsquarebrackets,e.g./p/,/t/.Typicalfeaturesofphonemes:i)phonologicalunitsii)distinctiveofmeaningiii)abstract,notphysicaliv)markedwith//ThePhonemeTheory(2.3.2)

Forexample,thedifferenceinmeaningbetween"seed"and"deed"liesinthefactthattheinitialsoundofthefirstwordiss[s]andtheinitialsoundofthesecondwordisd[d].Theformsofthetwowordsareidenticalexceptfortheinitialconsonants.Whatmakesthetwowordsdifferentinmeaningistheconsonants[s]and[d].Thus,thesearecalleddistinctivesounds,orphonemesinEnglish.

Minimalpairs(最小對立體)：

Minimalpairs:

Wordformswhichdifferfromeachotheronlybyonesound.E.g.bearandpear;pitandpet.(moreexample,seeFig.2.5.onP39)Thepurposeforidentifyingminimalpairs:tofindoutwhichsoundsubstitutionscausedifferencesofmeaningContrastivedistribution:[bit]vs.[but][pit]vs.[bit]Threerequirementsforidentifyingminimalpairs:1)differentinmeaning;2)onlyonephonemedifferent;3)thedifferentphonemesoccurinthesamephoneticenvironment.(同樣的發音位置）e.g.patvs.fatMinimalset:pat,mat,bat,fat,cat,hat,etcAllophones(音位變體)

[p,ph]aretwodifferentphonesandarevariantsofthephoneme/p/.Suchvariantsofaphonemearecalledallophones.Therule:/p/p/

sAllophone:Ex./l/(p.40)Lead&dealLead:/li:d/Deal:/di:l//t/button[?]top[th]stop[t]that[tunreleased]latter[FLAP]—areallperceivedas/t/.Allophonesaresaidtobein

complementarydistribution,thatis,theyneveroccurinthesamecontext.(P41)ThePhonemeTheoryPhonologicalprocesses(音系過程）aretheprocessesinwhichatargetoraffectedsegmentundergoesastructurechangeincertainenvironmentsorcontexts.Phonologicalprocesses(2.4)

PhonologicalProcessesAssimilationisaprocessbywhichonesoundtakesonsomeorallthecharacteristicsofaneighboringsound.Nasalization,dentalization,velarizationareallinstancesofassimilation.(P42)Itcanoccuracrosssyllableorwordboundaries(P43)E.g.pan

cake,sun

glasses,

PhonologicalProcesses

Devoicing1.fivepast2.loveto3.hasto4.ascanbeshown5.losefive-nil6.edgetoedge省力原則[faifpa:st][l∧ft?][hast?][?sk?nbi∫?un][lu:sfaivnil][εt∫

t?εd

]Regressiveassimilation:thefollowingsoundisinfluencingaprecedingsound.Progressiveassimilation:theprecedingsoundisinfluencingafollowingsound.1.nasalizationrule（p44)[-nasal][+nasal]/_____[+nasal]Asoundistransformedintohavingafeatureofanasalsoundwhenitappearsbeforeanasalsound.E.g.can2.dentalizationrule[-dental][+dental]/____[+dental]Asoundisdentalizedwhenitappearsbeforeadentalsound.E.g.Tenth3.velarizationrule[-velar][+velar]/_____[+velar]AsoundisvelarizedwhenitappearsbeforeavelarsoundE.g.sink/si?k/

Phonologicalrules4.Theepenthesisrule(fortheindefinitearticle)anapple,anhonor,anorange?[n]/[?]____V

Phonologicalrules

Phonologicalrules5.Therulegoverningpluralforms(P45)(1)The/s/appearsaftervoicelesssounds(2)The/z/appearsaftervoicedsounds(Allvowelsarevoiced.)(thebasicform)(3)The/?z/appearsaftersibilants/s,z,∫,?,t∫

,d?

/e.g.benches,cases,bridges,ashes,couches6.Thedeletionruletellsuswhenasoundisdeletedalthoughitisorthographicallyrepresented.Forexample:design,knife,dumbElsewhereconditionThemorespecificruleappliesfirst.(p.47)DistinctiveFeaturesDistinctivefeatureisafeaturethatisabletosignaladifferenceinmeaningbychangingitsplusorminusvalue(e.g.thefeature[voice]inthewordspeerandbeerorpatandbat.有區別意義的特征叫區別性特征Table2.6Theminimalpairsealandzealshowsthat/z/and/s/representtwocontrastingphonemesinEnglish.Theonlydifferencebetween/z/and/s/isavoicingdifference.Sothedistinctivefeaturehereisvoicedorvoiceless.Thedifferencebetweenthetwopairsofwordsisthatofvoice----/p/isvoiceless,/b/isvoiced.Distinctivefeaturesareusuallyinbinaryopposition(二分對立).E.g./b/[+voice],/p/[-voice]Peak&speakSeal&zealDistinctiveFeatures

Suprasegmentalphonology(超切分音位)

Thestudyofphonologicalpropertiesofunitslagerthanthesegment—phoneme.Theyaresyllable(音節)，stress（重音）,intonation（語調）andtone(音/聲調)(2.5,p.49-53)Syllable

Structurally,thesyllablemaybedividedintothreeparts:theonset,thepeak,andthecoda.man

MaximalonsetprincipleMinimalOnsetPrinciple(MOP,

P50)Itstatesthatwhenthereisachoiceastowheretoplaceaconsonant,itisputintotheonsetratherthanthecoda.E.g.tellingte-lling,OpensyllableandclosedsyllableThepeakisusuallyformedbyavowelandsymbolizedby“V”.SyllableAsyllablewithoutacoda(endinginavowel)isanOPENsyllable.E.g.bee,fly,comply.AsyllablecheckedorarrestedbyaconsonantisaCLOSEDsyllable.E.g.table,nose,apple

InEnglish,thesyllablemayberepresentedas(((C)C)C)V(((C)C)C)C),e.g.bye,fly,flight,spread,cast,result,eat,sixths…InChinese,(C)V(C),wo,ai,zhong,guo,ren,min…Stress

Stressisgenerallydefinedassyllableprominence.Inotherwords,itreferstothedegreeofforceusedinproducingasyllable.Inmanylanguages,includingEnglish,somesyllableswithinawordarerelativelymoreprominentthanothers.

1).ThestresspatterninEnglishisnoeasymatterbecauseitmayfallonanysyllable.Theychangeoverhistoryandexhibitregionalordialectaldifferences.laboratory,garage,debrisbetweenspeakersof