SustainableAviationFuel

(SAF)State-of-IndustryReport:

StateofSAFProductionProcess

NREL/TP-5100-87802?July2024

OscarRosalesCalderon,LingTao,ZiaAbdullah,KristiMoriarty,SharonSmolinski,AneliaMilbrandt,

MichaelTalmadge,ArpitBhatt,YiminZhang,VikramRavi,ChristopherSkangos,EricTan,andCourtneyPayne

SustainableAviationFuel

(SAF)State-of-IndustryReport:

StateofSAFProductionProcess

OscarRosalesCalderon,LingTao,ZiaAbdullah,KristiMoriarty,SharonSmolinski,AneliaMilbrandt,

MichaelTalmadge,ArpitBhatt,YiminZhang,VikramRavi,ChristopherSkangos,EricTan,andCourtneyPayneNationalRenewableEnergyLaboratory

SuggestedCitation:RosalesCalderon,Oscar,LingTao,ZiaAbdullah,KirstiMoriarty,SharonSmolinski,AneliaMilbrandt,MichaelTalmadge,etal.2024.SustainableAviationFuel(SAF)State-of-IndustryReport:StateofSAF

ProductionProcess.Golden,CO:NationalRenewableEnergyLaboratory.NREL/TP-5100-87802.

/docs/fy24osti/87802.pdf.

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15013DenverWestParkway,Golden,CO80401303-275-3000?

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NRELisanationallaboratoryoftheU.S.DepartmentofEnergyOfficeofEnergyEfficiencyandRenewableEnergy

OperatedbytheAllianceforSustainableEnergy,LLCNREL/TP-5100-87802?July2024

Frontcover:photofromGettyImages1042674534

NOTICE

ThisworkwasauthoredbytheNationalRenewableEnergyLaboratory,operatedbyAllianceforSustainableEnergy,LLC,fortheU.S.DepartmentofEnergy(DOE)underContractNo.DE-AC36-08GO28308.FundingprovidedbytheU.S.DepartmentofEnergyOfficeofEnergyEfficiencyandRenewableEnergyBioenergyTechnologiesOffice.TheviewsexpressedhereindonotnecessarilyrepresenttheviewsoftheDOEortheU.S.Government.

ThisreportisavailableatnocostfromtheNationalRenewableEnergyLaboratory(NREL)at

/publications.

U.S.DepartmentofEnergy(DOE)reportsproducedafter1991andagrowingnumberofpre-1991documentsareavailable

freevia

www.OSTI.gov.

NRELprintsonpaperthatcontainsrecycledcontent.

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Acknowledgments

WethanktheU.S.DepartmentofEnergy’sBioenergyTechnologiesOfficeforfundingand

supportingthiswork.Wealsothanktheinterviewedstakeholdersforprovidingtheirexpert

perspectivesrelatedtorampingupsustainableaviationfuel(SAF)productiontomeettheSAFGrandChallengegoalsandforreviewingthisreport.Finally,wethankthereviewersofthis

reportfortheirvaluablecomments.Stakeholdersandreviewersarelistedbelowby

company/organizationnames.Notethat“stakeholders”and“reviewers”donotimply

endorsementofthepresentedanalysisbyeitherindividualsorcompanies/organizations.

IndustryStakeholders

AlderRenewables

DanielSzeezil

Axens

DavidSchwalje

Boeing

JosephEllsworth

BP

JohnShabaker

CleanFuelsAllianceAmerica

ScottFenwick

DeltaAirlines

DanaKaplinski,CherieWilson,KellyNodzak,JoannaChavez

ExxonMobil

XiaochunXu

MarathonPetroleumCorporation

RonaldB.Juan

ParPacific

JonGoldsmith

PBFEnergy

Phillips66

AaloGupta,TJLee

PoetBiorefiningLLC

DaveCarlson

Preem

R?dbergHenrik,?hrmanOlov

St.BernardRenewables(SBR)

Suncor

ClementinaSosa

WorldEnergy

GaryGrimes

Reviewers

CleanFuelsAllianceAmerica

ScottFenwick

DPChemConsulting

DanielParker

Sacre-DaveyEngineering

RennelBarrie

TransportEnergyStrategies

TammyKlein

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ListofAcronyms

ATJalcoholtojet

BGPYbilliongallonsperyear

CAAFICommercialAviationAlternativeFuelsInitiative

CFRCodeofFederalRegulations

CIcarbonintensity

CO2carbondioxide

CO2ecarbondioxideequivalent

CORSIACarbonOffsettingandReductionSchemeforInternationalAviation

CSAClimateSmartAgriculture

EPAEnvironmentalProtectionAgency

FTFischer–Tropsch

GHGgreenhousegas

GREETGreenhousegases,RegulatedEmissions,andEnergyuseinTechnologies

HEFAhydroprocessedestersandfattyacids

ICAOInternationalCivilAviationOrganization

IRAInflationReductionAct

IRCInternalRevenueCode

LCAlifecycleanalysis

LCFSLowCarbonFuelStandard

MFSPminimumfuelsellingprice

NNSRNonattainmentNewSourceReview

NOxnitrogenoxides

NSRNewSourceReview

PMparticulatematter

PSDPreventionofSignificantDeterioration

PTJpyrolysistojet

RDrenewablediesel

RFSRenewableFuelStandard

RINrenewableidentificationnumber

SAFsustainableaviationfuel

SPKsyntheticparaffinickerosene

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PurposeoftheState-of-IndustryReports

Thisseriesofsustainableaviationfuel(SAF)state-of-industryreportsaimstoprovidea

thoroughevaluationoftheemergingSAFproductionindustry,andfostercommunicationamongthestakeholders(bothpublicandprivate)involvedintheSAFsupplychain.WhilethereportisprimarilyconcernedwiththeproductionofSAF,thenatureofproducinghydrocarbonfuels

meansthatsomeoftheinformationincludedwillberelevanttotheproductionofotherliquidtransportationfuels.

Inadditiontothisreportonthehydroprocessedestersandfattyacids(HEFA)pathway,the

projectteamplanstoreleaseaseriesofreportscoveringtheoverallSAFframework,thealcohol-to-jet(ATJ)pathway,theFischer–Tropsch(FT)pathway,andpossiblythepyrolysis-to-jet(PTJ)pathway.

ThesereportscenteronidentifyinganyweaklinksinthesupplychainthathavethepotentialtohindertheproductionofSAF,particularlyinreachingtheproductiongoalssetbyU.S.

DepartmentofEnergy,theU.S.DepartmentofTransportation,theU.S.Departmentof

Agriculture,andotherfederalgovernmentagenciesaspartoftheSAFGrandChallenge.Thereportsfocusprimarilyonhurdlesforthe2030goalof3billiongallonsperyear(BGPY)butalsoidentifysomeofthechallengestoachievingthe2050goalof35BGPY.Toidentifytheseobstacles,theprojectteaminterviewedkeystakeholderssuchasSAFandrenewablediesel

producers,crudeoilrefiningcompanies,environmentalorganizations,airlines,biomassproducers,pipelineowners,andotherexpertsinrelevantfields.

StateofSAFProductionProcessReport

ThisreportpresentsfactorswithintheSAFproductionchainthatarecommontoallpathways.

TheaimofthisreportistohighlightpotentialchallengesthatcanhinderSAFproductionscale-upregardlessofwhichpathwayisused.Weidentifiedthesechallengesbasedon

discussions,consultations,andcollaborativesessionswithstakeholdersalongtheSAFsupplychain.

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ExecutiveSummary

Duetotheircompatibilitywithexistingfuelinfrastructure,biofuelswillplayanimportantroleindecarbonizinghard-to-electrifyportionsofthetransportationsectorinthecomingyears.

Specificallyconsideringtheaviationsector,greenhousegas(GHG)emissionsrelatedto

commercialairtravelwerealreadysignificantpriortotheCOVID-19pandemic,at10%ofdomestictransportationemissionsand3%oftotalU.S.GHGemissions.Evenwithmodestannualgrowth,airtransportationandrelatedemissionsareexpectedtodoubleby2050.

Becausesustainableaviationfuel(SAF)istheonlywaythatmedium-tolong-haulcommercialaviationcanbedecarbonizedinthenearterm,aU.S.governmentwide“SAFGrandChallenge”wasissuedtoencourageindustrytodevelopcapabilitiestoproduceSAF,reducecost,improve

sustainability,buildsupplychains,andscaleproductioncapabilities[1].Thetargetsareto

expandcurrentdomesticSAFproductionby130times(basedon2023consumptionnumbers)to3billiongallonsperyearby2030andthenfurtherby12timesto35billiongallonsperyearby2050whileachievinglifecycleGHGemissionsreductionofatleast50%relativetofossilJetA.FollowingtheannouncementoftheSAFGrandChallenge,theU.S.DepartmentofEnergy,U.S.DepartmentofAgriculture,EnvironmentalProtectionAgency,andFederalAviation

Administrationcollaborativelydevelopedacomprehensivestrategy,outlinedintheSAFGrandChallengeRoadmap[2],toinformstakeholdersoftheactionsnecessarytoachievetheabove

volumetrictargets.

ThepurposeofthisstudyistoprovideanassessmentofthecurrentstateoftheSAFproductionindustryandidentifychallengesandhurdlesthatindustrymayfaceindeliveringthe2030goals.Thisassessmentisforthepotentialfeedstocksandconversionpathwaysexpectedtocontributeto2030goalsandwillgenerallyfollowactionareasintheSAFGrandChallenge:feedstocks,

conversiontechnology,supplychain,andpolicyandvaluation.

Thepathwaysweplantoinvestigatebetweenfiscalyears2023and2025includehydroprocessedestersandfattyacids(HEFA),Fischer–Tropsch(FT),alcoholtojet(ATJ),andpyrolysistojet

(PTJ).Theinvestigationsarebasedontechnicalandcommercialliteraturereviews,discussions,consultations,andcollaborativesessionswithindustrystakeholdersandsubjectmatterexpertsontechnologies,economics,sustainability,logistics,approvals,regulations,policies,andpermittingthatmayimpacttheindustry’sabilitytoachievetheSAFGrandChallengegoals.Inadditionto

thisreport,areportonHEFAwillbepublishedin2024,andreportsonFT,ATJ,andPTJwillbepublishedduringfiscalyears2024and2025.

ThisreportpresentsfactorswithintheSAFsupplychainthatmaybecommontoallpathways.

Basedonindustryfeedbackandouranalysis,someofthekeytakeawayfactorshighlightedfromthisstudyinclude:

?BothSAFandrenewablediesel(RD)arenecessarytodecarbonizetransportation.RDsupportsthedecarbonizationofmedium-andheavy-dutyvehicles,andSAFenablesthedecarbonizationofmedium-andlong-distancecommercialaviation.

?ThedemandforSAFisexpectedtoincreasebecausetherearenoalternativefuelingoptionsformedium-tolong-haulcommercialaviation.AlthoughthereislikelytobestrongdemandforRDinthemedium-term,long-termdemandforRDwilllikely

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decreasebecauseofelectrificationandhydrogenfuelingoptionsformedium-andheavy-dutyvehicles.IncreasingproductionvolumesofRDintheneartermhasthebenefitof

developingproduction/logisticsinfrastructureandimprovingfuelproducers’skillsin

maintainingquality,problem-solving,efficiency,andcostreduction,asthetechnologiesforRDandSAFaresimilar.ThegrowthoftheSAFmarketwillbepositivelyimpactedbyalloftheselearnings.

?Inthepresentmarketandincentivestructure,RDcompeteswithSAFbecausethey

havemostlysimilarprocessconfiguration,carbonnumbers,andboilingpoints.At

thetimeofpublication,thecombinedincentivesinsomestateswillslightlyfavorRDproduction(federalandCaliforniaState

1

incentives).Asevidenceoftheimpactof

incentives,only8milliongallonsofSAFweresoldinCaliforniain2021,whichmadeup0.3%ofthetotalLowCarbonFuelStandard(LCFS)creditssold.Incontrast,941milliongallonsofRDwereproducedinthesameyear,accountingfor36%ofthetotalLCFS

credits.ThestructureofthecombinedfederalandstateincentivesforCalifornia

(CA)indicatesthatRDcurrentlyhasaslightadvantageoverSAFwhencarbon

intensity(CI)valuesareequal.Thisadvantageismainlyduetotheextra$0.39

allocatedtoRDbasedonCaliforniaavoideddieseldeficit.IntheabsenceofCaliforniaavoideddieseldeficits,thefederalandCaliforniaLCFSincentivesfavorSAFfor2023–2024and2024–2027,whenemissionsreductionsexceed60%.Whilecurrentpolicy

andmarketconditionsmayincentivizebiofuelfacilitiestofavorRDproduction,thesesamefacilitiescouldbeusedwithsomemodificationstoincreaseSAF

productionandsupporttheFederalgovernment’sSAFproductiongoalsasthemarketforSAFgrows.

?EffectiveanddurablepolicyincentivesarerequiredforSAFproductionand

encouragethegrowthandestablishmentofaSAFindustrywhileideallyproviding

low-carbonjetfueltocustomersatcostscomparabletofossilJetA.Stakeholders

emphasizedthenecessityoflong-termdurabilityofSAFpoliciesbecausecapital

investmentsarelarge,withprojectlifetimesexceeding10years.Onemajorconcernhasbeenthefrequentexpirationandreinstatementoftaxcredits,aswellasthe

consistencyoftheseincentives.

?EstablishingaglobalconsensusonthedefinitionandeligibilitycriteriaforSAFis

importantbecauseairlineswilluseSAFproducedoninternationalroutesandwill

thusbesubjecttoothercountries’regulations.MostofthefeedstocksidentifiedintheBillion-TonReport[3],suchasgrains,oilseeds,animalfats,andforestrywastes,can

comply

2

withtheSAFGrandChallenge’s50%GHGemissionsreductionrequirement

andtheCommercialAviationAlternativeFuelsInitiative(CAAFI)definitionofSAF[4]andmayalsobecompliantwiththeInternationalCivilAviationOrganization(ICAO)

definitionofSAF[5].

?Feedstockavailabilitymaybeahighriskinasupplychainbecauseitembodies

multiplerisksthatmaycompoundandthatarebeyondthecontrolofaSAF

producer.Compoundingfactorsforcertainbiomassfeedstockmayincludeseasonality,

1Californiawaschoseninthiscasebecauseoftheiruniquestate-levelenergypolicies,whichoftenleadtothe

productionofhighvolumesofrenewabletransportationfuelswithintheirborders.Otherstatesmayhavedifferentexistingandproposedpoliciesthatwillchangetheoveralllandscapeoffuelproductionbefore2030.

2SomefeedstockandSAFpathwaycombinations,likecorn-ethanoltojetfuel,maynotmeettheGHGemissionsreductionthresholdunlessadditionalmeasuresaretakentoreducethecarbonintensityoftheprocess.

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pests,diseases,climateandweather,marketdemand,globaltradeandregulations,and

labor.Someofthisriskmaybemitigatedbyconversionprocessesthathavethe

flexibilitytoacceptmultiple,morediversefeedstock.However,projectfinanciers

typicallyrequirelong-termsupplyagreementswithcredit-worthycounterparties.Thechallengeliesinthefactthat,despitetheavailabilityoffeedstock,theprojectmaystillnotmeetthenecessaryde-riskcriteria—becauseofthefactorsmentionedabove—to

qualifyforprojectfinancing.OnewaythisfeedstockriskmaybemitigatedistohavefeedstocksuppliersalsobecomeinvestorsinSAFprojects.

?FortheHEFApathway,thereisasignificantoverlapbetweenjetanddiesel

hydrocarbonfractions.Althoughoverlapbetweenjetanddieselfractionswillallow

producerstheflexibilitytochoosewhichproducttomake,productionofadditionaljet

fuelfromthedieselfractionmayrequireadditionalcapitalexpense,increaseoperating

costs,requireadditionalhydrogenandhigher-severityoperations,andreducecarbon

yieldtothedesiredproduct.Simpleextractionofthejetfraction(approximatecarbon

number[C]8to16)viadistillationwillresultintheremainingdieselfraction(carbon

number>16)beingtooheavy(highpourpoint)tobeusedinthedieselmarket;however,thisheavyfractionmaybesuitableforheavyfueloildisplacementinthemarinefuel

market.WhilethegovernmenthasestablishedSAFproductionasapriority,producingrenewabledieseland/ormarinefuelalsocontributestodecarbonizingthetransportationsector.FortheATJpathway,wheresmallermoleculesare“builtup”oroligomerizedtomakelargermolecules,itmaybepossibletoproducefuelmoleculesintheC8toC16

rangewithouthavingtoproducelargermolecules.

?Atpresent,100%SAFblendstock(withoutASTMD1655approval)isnotapprovedtobetransportedviapetroleumpipelines.Inthefuture,pipelinetransportmaybepermitted,

butSAFblendstockiscurrentlytransportedbytruck,rail,orbargefromstand-alone

biorefinerieswhereblendingwithfossilJetAmaynotbepossible.Itmaybebeneficialtoconsiderbiorefinerysiteswithbargeandrailaccessintheneartermuntil

approvalisgivenfor100%SAFtransportviapetroleumpipelines.Deliveryofless-densefeedstocks,suchaswoodybiomassandagriculturalwaste,bytruck,evenfora

modest-sizedbiorefineryproducing60milliongallonsofSAFperyear,willrequireatruckcomingandgoingevery2minutes.Iffossildieselisusedforfuel,theincreaseintrucktrafficcanfurthercontributetoGHGemissions.Thismaynegativelyimpact

surroundingcommunitiesunlessthereareoptionstobypassinhabitedareas.Anotheroptionmaybetheuseof“hub-and-spoke”logisticsmodelswherebiomassiscollectedanddensifiedatsmallerscale,thenmovedinadensifiedformtoabiorefinery.

?TheNation’spipelinefuelstransportationinfrastructureisalreadycapacity-constrainedwhenannualjetfueluseisapproximately22billiongallons.Ifannualaviationfuel

demandincreasesto35billiongallonsby2050,fuellogisticsmaybecomeabottleneckconstrainingthegrowthoftheaviationindustry.Althoughthisconstraintcouldbe

mitigatedbyreduceddemandforgasoline(becauseoflight-dutyfleetelectrification),

theremayalsobeopportunitiestoproduceSAFlocally,nearairports,tobypassthefuelstransportationinfrastructureconstraints.ThisstrategymaybemoreapplicabletoATJorFTplantssinceHEFAfacilitiesarepredominantlyrepurposedfossilfuel

refineries[6].

?Biorefineryprojectpermittingprocesseshavebeenidentifiedasonerousand

deemedtobe“substantialbarriers”inthedeploymentofSAFfacilities,withprojects

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canceledorrelocatedduetolengthy,high-risk,andtime-consumingpermitting

processes.WhilethisisnotabarrierexclusivetoSAF,interviewedstakeholdersfeltthatprocesssimplificationwouldbebeneficialtospeeddeploymentofSAFfacilities.

?Socialresistancetonewfacilitieshasbeenraisedbystakeholdersasapotential

bottleneck.Thisstemsfromtheenvironmentalimpactofnewfacilitiesbutalsofrom

insufficientinvolvementofresidentsandenergy/environmentaljusticeadvocatesbeforeaprojectisstartedandcommunitybuy-inisobtained.SocialresistanceisnotexclusivetotheSAFindustry;however,communityacceptancewhensitingabiorefineryiscriticaltoavoidpotentialdelays.Understandinghowregulatoryinstitutionsincorporatestakeholderparticipationintotheirdecision-makingprocesscouldhelpsimplifythepermitting

processwhilealsoincludingandconsideringpublicconcernsandpriorities.

?Currentincentivesdirectlybenefitfuelproducers,whowouldincreaseSAFproductionandcreateadditionaldemandforfeedstock.Farmersmaybenefitthroughincreased

demandforfeedstockasanindirectbenefit.

?Fixedassetsandthecontractualarrangements(mainlyforfeedstocksupplyand

productofftake)arenotconsideredsecureenoughforprojectfinancing.Project

financelenderswouldliketoseemultipleyearsofstableoperationandcashflowfor

similarfacilitiesbeforeprovidingcredit.Thus,programssuchastheBioenergy

TechnologiesOffice’sscale-upfundingopportunitiesfordemonstrationplants[7]andtheLoanProgramsOffice’ssupportforpioneerbiorefineriesarecritical[8].Otherlenders

suchasequityfinancehavehigherrisktoleranceandmaybridgethegapbetweenfederallysupportedprojectsandprojectfinancingstructures.Petroleumrefineryintegrationmayalsosignificantlyreducecapitalcosts,loweringfinancingneeds.

?Theairlineindustryisextremelycost-competitive,withfuelcontributing20%to30%oftheiroperatingexpenditures.Ifanysingleairlineagreestolock-intoalong-termSAF

premiumforsubstantialfuelvolume,itscoststructuremaybecomeuncompetitive

againstitspeers.However,onepositiveaspectoflong-termpricelock-inmaybehedgingagainstpricevolatilityoffossilJet-A.

?SAFdevelopersfeltthatcarbonpricingorevenaglobalcarbontaxwould“leveltheplayingfield”forthemtocompetewithotherrenewableindustriesandtoensure

consistentdecision-makingprocessesacrosstheavailablepathways.Incentivesor

mandatesthataffecteachairlineequallymaymitigatecostimparitybetweenSAFandJet-AandreducetheimpactofpricevolatilityofJet-Aonairlineprofitability.

ProducingSAFtomeettheGrandChallengegoalsisagreatopportunityforeconomic

developmentintheU.S.SAFwilldecarbonizeflightswithintheU.SandenableU.S.carrierstoflygloballywithalowercarbonfootprint.Therearesomechallenges,suchastheneedto

produceRDaswell,whichwillputpressureonfeedstocksupply,buttherearemultiple

pathwaysapprovedbyASTMthatprovideconsiderablefeedstockflexibility.SAFbiorefineries

willhavethepotentialbenefittoreducebottlenecksintheU.S.capacity-constrainedfuel

distributionsystemsiftheycanbebuiltclosertoairports.Thereareopportunitiestomake

policies(atthestateorfederallevel)toencouragemorestableinvestmentsforproducingSAF.TheBioenergyTechnologiesOffice,LoanProgramsOffice,andotherfederalprogramssuchastheFederalAviationAdministration’sFuelingAviation’sSustainableTransition(FAST)[9]arecriticallyimportantatthisnascentstageoftheindustry,asconventionallenderstendtoberiskaverse.

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TableofContents

ExecutiveSummary vi

1Introduction 1

1.1PurposeandMethodologyofThisStudy 4

1.2ContentandOrganizationofThisReport 5

2SustainableAviationFuels 6

2.1DefinitionsofSAF 7

2.2KeyAdjacenciesBetweenSAFandMajorTransportationFuels 8

2.3OverviewoftheSupplyChain 9

2.4JetFuelandSAFMovements 11

2.5JetFuelSupplyChainConstraints 13

2.6JetFuelQualityControl 15

3PermitsandApprovals 17

3.1FuelApprovals:ASTMStandards 18

3.2ProjectPermitsandApprovals 21

3.3JetASupplyChain’sRegulationsandPermits 22

3.4DifficultiesWithApprovalsandPermits 23

4PoliciesandIncentives 25

4.1InflationReductionAct 26

4.2RenewableFuelStandard 28

4.3StateandLocalPolicies 28

4.4LifeCycleAnalysisandCarbonIntensity 30

4.5StakeholderConcernsRelatedtoPolicy 31

References 39

AppendixA.StakeholderEngagement 51

AppendixB.ASTM-ApprovedSAFPathways 53

AppendixC.ConformityTestASTMSpecificationandTestMethods 55

AppendixD.SAFPoliciesandIncentives 57

AppendixE.EconomicsandSustainability 64

AppendixF.AirQualityandRegulations 70

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ListofFigures

Figure2.TheSAFGrandChallengerequires130timesscale-upinproductioninthenext7years

(considering2023consumptionvolume)and12timesscale-upinthe20yearsfollowing

2030[16] 3

Figure3.Carbonnumbersandboilingpointsforgasoline,jet,anddieselfuels[1] 8

Figure4.CompositionofaverageJetA[1,12] 9

Figure5.OverviewoftheSAFsupplychain 10

Figure6.MajorU.S.pipelinestransportingjetfuel 12

Figure7.SAFandconventionaljetfuelsupplychains 13

Figure8.Airportsservedbycapacity-constrainedpipelines[29] 14

Figure9.Airportsservedbycapacity-constrainedtrucks[29] 15

Figure10.ComparisonoffederalandstateincentivesforRDandSAF:(a)2023–2024and(b)2025–

2027.Carbonintensity(CI)isingCO2e/MJfuel(CA=California) 33

Figure11.CombinedfederalandCaliforniaincentivevalues,February2022throughJanuary2024

(USD/gallon),forRDandSAFwithCIvaluesof44.5and18 34

Figure12.Combinedincentivevaluesforonlyfederalincentives,federalandCaliforniastateincentives,

federalandOregonstateincentives,andfederalandWashingtonstateincentives,forJanuary

2024,forRDandSAFwithCI18 36

Figure13.Numberandlengthofofftakeagreementssignedbetween2020and2023[114] 38

FigureD-1.RINpricingJanuary2019throughJanuary2024(USD/gallon),basedonpricingdatafrom

[93] 61

FigureD-2.RINpricingforD4RDandSAF,January2019throughJanuary2024(USD/gallon),based

onpricingdatafromEPA[93],ascalculatedusingtheequivalencevaluesof1.7forRDand

1.6forSAF 62

FigureD-3.RINpricingforD5RDandSAF(producedviacoprocessing),January2019throughJanuary

2024(USD/gallon),basedonpricingdatafromEPA[93],ascalculatedusingthe

equivalencevaluesof1.7forRDand1.6forSAF 62

FigureD-4.CaliforniaLCFScreditpricing,January2019throughJanuary2024(USD/metricton),based

ontheaveragepricepermonthfromtheLCFScredittransactionlog[120] 63

FigureE-1.Approachfortechno-economicanalysis 65

FigureF-1.Simplifiedflowdiagramoftheairper