Divisionthree:TheMiddleAges中世紀WhathappenedinWesternEuropeafterthedeclineoftheRomanEmpire?AftertheRomanEmpirelostitspredominance,agreatmanyGermanicKingdomsbegantogrowintothenationsknowasEngland,France,Italy,andGermanyinitsplace.ThesenationsofWesternEuropewereinthesceneoffrequentwarsandinvasions.Thepoliticalunityhadgivenwaytowidespreaddestructionandconfusion.Hungeranddiseasekilledmanylivesandvillagefellintoruinandgreatareasoflandlaywaste.Therewasnocentralgovernmenttokeeptheorder.TheonlyorganizationthatseemedtouniteEuropewastheChristianchurch.Whatweretheculturalcharacteristicsoftheperiodfrom500to1000?Aboveall,theculturalcharactersofthisperiodweretheheritageandachievementofRomancultureandtheemergenceofHebrewandGothicculture.WhowasCharlesMartel?CharlesMartelwasaFrankishrulerwhogavehissoldiersestatesknownasfiefsasarewardfortheirservicesin732.Whatwastherelationshipbetweenlordandvassal?Lordsgrantedpartsoftheirlandsknownasfiefstovassals.Inreturn,thevassalspromisedtofightforthelords.Intowhatthreegroupswerepeopledividedunderfeudalism?Underfeudalism,peopleoftheirWesternEuropeweremainlydividedintothreeclassesWhatwasthedifferentbetweenaserfandafreeman?Aserfhadnolandandnofreedom.Hewasbondtothelandwherehehadbeenborn.Afreemanwasapeasantwhousuallywasaworkerwhomadetheploughs,shodthehorses,andmadeharnessesforoxenandhorses.WhatistheimportanceoftheusingofvernacularlanguagesinMedievalliterature?IntheMiddleAges,some“nationalepics”werewritteninvernacularlanguage—thelanguageofvariousnationalstatesthatcameintobeingatthatperiod,andsomemonksadvocatedtranslatingtheBibleinvernacular.LiteraryworkswerenolongerallwritteninLatin.ItwasthestartingpointofagradualtransitionofEuropeanliteraturefromLatinculturethatwasthecombinationofavarietyodnationalcharacteristics.InwhatwaysdidGothicartdifferfromRomanesqueart?⑴AlthoughGothicwasanoutgrowthoftheRomanesque,itwasgivendirectionsbyadifferentaestheticandphilosophicalspiritandreflectedamuchmoreorderedfeudalsocietywithfullconfidence.⑵Romanesquearchitectureischaracterizedbymassiveness,solidity,andmonumentalitywithanoverallblockyappearance.Sculptureandpainting,primaryinchurches,developedawonderfulunitywitharchitecture.Bothartsoftenareimbuedwithsymbolismandallegory.Theyarenotbasedonnaturalformsbutusedeliberatedistortionsforexpressiveimpact.⑶Gothiccathedralssoaredhigh,theirwindows,archedandtowersreachingheavenward,flingingtheirpassionagainstthesky.TheyweredecoratedwithbeautifulstainedglasswindowsandsculpturesmorelifelikethananysinceancientRome.WhatwasthemeritwhichCharlemagneandAlfredtheGreatshare?BothCharlemagneandAlfredtheGreatcontributiongreatlytotheEuropeanculture.Bothofthemencouragedlearningbysettingupmonasteryschools.ThescholarsinAlfredtheGreat’smonasteriestranslatedtheLatinworksintothevernacular.Thusbothhelpedpreservetheancientclassicsandculture.Divisionfour:RenaissanceandReformation文藝復(fù)興與宗教改革WhatmadeItalythebirthplaceoftheRenaissance?Becauseofitsgeographicalposition,foreigntradedevelopedearlyinItaly.ThisbroughtItalyintocontactwithotherculturesandgaverisetourbaneconomyandhelpedItalyaccumulatewealthwhichwasanessentialfactorforthefloweringofartandliterature.Fortwocenturiesbeginningfromthelate15thcentury,Florencewasthegoldencitywhichgavebirthtoawholegenerationofpoets,scholars,artistsandsculptors.TherewasinFlorencearevivalofinterestinclassicallearningandrisingofhumanistideas.Andtospreadthenewideas,librariesandacademieswerefounded.Inthe15thcenturyprintingwasinventedandhelpedtospreadhumanistideas.Whatarethemainelementsofhumanism?HowaretheseelementsreflectedinartandliteratureduringtheItalianRenaissance?HumanististheessenceofRenaissance.Humanistsinrenaissancebelievedthathumanbeingshadrightstopursuewealthandpleasureandtheyadmiresthebeautyofhumanbody.Thisbeliefrancountertothemedievalasceticalideaofpovertyandstoicism,andshiftedman’sinterestfromChristianitytohumanity,fromreligiontophilosophy,fromheaventoearth,fromthebeautyofGodtothebeautyofhumaninallitsjoy,sensesandfeeling.ThephilosophyofhumanismisreflectedintheartandliteratureduringtheItalianRenaissanceintheliteratureworksofBoccaccioandPetrarchandintheartofGiotto,Brunelleschi,Donatello,Giorgione,daVinci,Michelangelo,Raphael,andTitian,etc.Intheirworkstheydidnotstressdeathandotherworldbutcallonmantoliveandworkforthepresent.WhydowelookuponPetrarchasthefatherofmodernpoetry?Petrarchwasaprominentfigureofhistime,agreatfigureinItalianliteratureandoneofthegreathumanistsduringtheRenaissance.Hehaswrittennumerouslyrics,sonnetsandcanzonets.Petrarchrejectedmedievalcountryconventionsandsangfortrueloveandearthlyhappinessinhissonnets.LatersonnetsbecameaveryimportantliteraryformofpoetryinEuropeandalotofpoets,suchasShakespeare,Spencer,andMrs.Browning,wereindebtedtohim.ThuswelookuponhimasthefatherofmodernpoetryHowdidItalianRenaissanceartandarchitecturebreakawayfrommedievaltraditions?TheItalianRenaissanceartandarchitectureradicallybrokeawayfromthemedievalmethodsofrepresentingthevisibleworld.Comparedwiththelatter,theformerhasthefollowingdistinctfeatures:⑴Artbrokeawayfromthedominationofchurchandartistwhousedtobecraftsmencommissionedbythechurchbecameaseparatestratadoingnobleandcreativeworks;⑵ThemesofpaintingandarchitecturechangedfrompurelycelestialrealmfocusingonthestoriesoftheBible,ofGodandMarytoanappreciationofallaspectsofnatureandman;⑶TheartistsstudiedtheruinsofRomanandGreektemplesandputmanyoftheprinciplesofancientcivilizationintotheirworks;⑷Artistsintroducedintheirworksscientifictheoriesofanatomyandperspective.InwhatwaywasDaVinciimportantduringtheRenaissance?LeonadodaVinciwasamanofmanytalents,aRenaissancemaninthetruesenseoftheword.Hewasapainter,asculptor,anarchitect,amusician,anengineer,andascientistallinone.Asanartist,hewasveryimportant.HehaslefttotheworldfamousworkssuchasLastSupperandMonaLisa.Thenhisexcellentuseofcontrastbetweenlightanddarknessshowedhimasanexcellentpainter.Mostimportantofall,daVincihadprofoundunderstandingofart.Inhis5000notebooks,heputdownhisobservationsoflifeandhissketchdrawing.Inhispaintinghestressedtheexpressionofemotionalstates.Hisunderstandingsofartexertedgreatinfluenceuponpaintersofhisowngenerationandgenerationstofollow.Hewasalsoveryimportantinthescienceofmedicine.DuringhislifehedissectedmorethanthirtycorpsesandwasagreatanatomistinItaly.Heplacedartintheserviceofanatomyasasciencebasedonextensiveresearch.WhatarethedoctrinesofMartinLuther?WhatwasthesignificanceofthereformationinEuropeancivilization?InReformationbeganin1517,MartinLutherputforththefollowingdoctrines:⑴HerejectedtheabsoluteauthorityoftheRomanCatholicchurchandreplaceitwithabsoluteoftheBible.PeoplecancommunicatewithGoddirectlyinsteadofthroughthechurch;⑵Heopposedthepurchaseofindulgencesandcalledforinstitutionalreformofthechurch;⑶advocatedtranslatingthewholeBibleintovernacularsandmadetheBibleaccessibletoeveryman;⑷Hepreachedloveandidealsofequality,andhewasafighterfordemocracyandnationalism,ahumanistwhohelpedtobuildacompetenteducationalsysteminGermany.TheReformationwassignificantintheEuropeancivilization.BeforeReformation,Europewasessentiallyfeudalandmedieval.Inallaspectsofpolitics,economyandspirit,itwasundertheabsoluteruleoftheRomanCatholicChurchandtheHolyRomanEmpire.ButaftertheReformationthingsweredifferent.Ineducationalandculturalmatters,themonopolyofthechurchwasbroken.Inreligion,ProtestantismbroughtintobeingdifferentformsofChristianitytochallengetheabsoluteruleoftheRomanCatholicChurch.Inlanguage,thedominantpositionofLatinhadtogivewaytothenationallanguagesasaresultofvarioustranslationsofBibleintovernacular.Inspirit,absoluteobediencebecameout-modeandthespiritofquest,debate,wasusheredinbythereformists.Inword,afterthereformationEuropewastotakeanewcourseofdevelopment,ascientificrevolutionwastobeunderwayandcapitalismwastosetinwithitsdynamiceconomicprinciples.WhatwasCounter—Reformation?WhoweretheJesuits?Aretheystillactivenow?ThecountertheReformationandtobringbackitsvitality,theRomanCatholicChurchmusteredtheirforcestoexaminetheChurchinstitutionsandintroducereformsandimprovements.Intime,theRomanCatholicChurchdidre-establishitselfasadynamicforceinEuropeanaffairs.ThisrecoveryofpowerisoftencalledbyhistorianstheCounter-Reformation.Theseed-bedforthisCatholicreformationwasSpainwiththeSpanishmonarchyestablishingtheinquisitiontocarryoutcruelsuppressionofheresyandunorthodoxy.Ignatius,aSpaniardwhodevotedhislifetodefendingtheRomanCatholicChurch,andhisfollowerscalledthemtheJesuitsmembersoftheSocietyofJesus.TodaytheSocietyofJesusisstillactivewithamembershipof31,000,havinginstitutionsinvariouspartsoftheworld.WhatdidFrenchRenaissancewritersproposeintheirwritings?⑴TheFrenchRenaissancewriterRabelaisexpressedhidideasinGargantuaandPantagruelthattheonlyruleofthehousewas“DoAsThouWilt”—tofollowournaturalinstinct;⑵Ronsardheldthatmanoflettersshouldwriteinastylethatwasclearandfreefromuselessrhetoric;⑶TheEssaisofMontaignerecordshisviewsonlife,deathandhisskepticismtowardsknowledge,insimple,straightforwardstyle,hisfamousmottois“WhatdoIknow?”WhydidEnglandcomelaterthanothercountriesduringtheRenaissance?InwhatwaywasEnglishRenaissancedifferentfromthatofothercountries?Whowerethemajorfiguresandwhattheircontributions?BecauseoftheWarofRoseswithinthecountryanditsweakandunimportantpositioninworldtrade,RenaissancecamelaterinEnglandthanotherEuropeancountries.ComparedwiththeRenaissanceinothercountries,theRenaissanceinEnglandhasthefollowingfeatures:⑴Itcamelater;butwhenitdidcome,itwastoproducesometoweringfiguresinEnglishliteratureandtheworldliterature;⑵TheRenaissanceinEnglandfounditsfinestexpressionindrama,crownedbyShakespeare;⑶TheRenaissanceinEnglandenjoyedaperiodofpoliticalandreligiousstabilityunderthereignofElizabethⅠ.ThemajorfiguresofthisperiodwereWilliamShakespeare,EdmundSpencer,SirThomasmore,FrancisBacon,andetc.Shakespearehascontributedtotheworldalegacyofliteratureheritagebyturningoutsomanyoutstandingplaysandpoems.Hewa