語言學導論新編語言學教程劉潤清文旭ChapterOneLinguisticsDefinitionLinguisticsdiffersfromothersciencesinthatitbothuseslanguagesasthetoolandtakeslanguagesasitsobjecttostudy.3.Philology→Linguistics(語文學）（語言學）Inthemidof19thF.DeSaussure(thefounderofgenerallinguistics）4.Linguisticstudy(1)diachronicstudy歷時性學習

Studythedevelopmentoflanguageinthecourseoftime.

研究語言在不同時期的特點。

(2)synchronicstudy共時性學習

Studylinguisticsataparticularpointoftime(givenlinguisticstatusorstageofaparticularlanguage)

研究語言在同一時期的不同階段。

※linguisticstudy:primarysynchronicstudy※研究語言難在：①languageisalwayschanging②peopleinthesamespeechcommunitydonotsaythesamelanguage③featuresofalanguage,can’tbereplaced

quickly

andcompletely.Scopeoflinguistics:PhoneticsPhonologyMorphologyMicrolinguisticsSyntaxSemanticsPragmaticsSociolinguisticsMacrolinguisticsPsycholinguisticsStylistics5.Langue＆Parole

langue語言————————————————parole言語

↓

↓asetofrulesorconventionsanabstractlinguisticsystemineveryspeaker’smindnotactuallyspokene.relativelystableActualspokenSpecific(concrete)situationaltheuseoftherulesorconventions※Paroleistherealizationofthelangue6.Languagecompetence＆languageperformance

LAD→innate(capacity/intuitivetoacquirelanguage)experience→→Grammar(foraparticularlanguage)↓‖competence→performance↓isn’tinnateworkinglikeamachineAs.Material→→product※competence①(Grammar)isequaltoeverybody②idealknowledgeoflanguageuserperformance①isn’tequaltoeverybody②influencedbypsychologicalandsocialfactors.※Performanceistherealizationoftheknowledge※KnowledgeistheessenceofthecompetenceBehavioristheessenceoftheperformance※CommunicativeCompetence-------Hymes7.prescriptivism&descriptivismPrescriptivism:Setdownakindofform,admitonedialectorvarietyismoresuperiorthananother.Formgrammar,pronunciation,lexicon.Regulatepeoplehowtoactuallyuselanguage.Howthingsshouldbe.LanguagepoliceDescriptivism:Languageislive,changing.Ifoneoflanguageisexpressive,logical,thenitisagoodlanguage.b)observer/recorder/oflanguagehowthingsactuallybe/whatpeopleactuallysay.ChapterTwoLanguageDefinitionoflanguage:asetofrules(eg.Syntactic

rules…)Awell-organizedsystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsUsedforhumancommunication:thereisnologicalandintrinsicconnectionbetweenobjectsandsymbols.:thesound,spokenlanguage,mostimportantmedium.:peopleuseittorepresentobjects,ideas,opinionsoractions.:humanspecific(人類特有）2.

DesignfeaturesoflanguageArbitrarinessProductivityDualityDisplacementCulturaltransmissionSpecializationinterchangeability3.SocialfunctionsoflanguageCommunicativemeans(themostimportantone)Themeansforconceptualthinkingandrecognitionoftheworld.(3)Thevehicleandtransmitterofculture.languageiscultural-dependantlanguagemirrorsculture4.

FunctionsoflanguageincommunicationPhaticDirectivefunctionInformativefunctionExpressivefunctionInterrogativefunctionEvocativefunctionPerformativefunctionChapterThreePhonetics:soundoflanguageDefinitionofphonetics:Thescientificstudyofspeechsounds,whichareusedbyallhumanlanguagesorbyaparticularlanguagetorepresentmeanings.Branches:(1)articulatoryphonetics(發音（聲）語音學)：Thestudyoftheproductionofthesound.(2)accusticphonetics(聲學語音學）：concernedwithphysicalpropertiesofthesesounds.(3)Auditoryphonetics(聽覺語音學）:concernedwiththereception/perceptionofthehearer.3.InternationalPhoneticsAssociation(IPA)InternationalPhoneticsAlphabet(IPA)國際音標

Bilabials/p//b//m//w/Labiodentals/f//v/Alveolars/d//t//s//z//n//r//l/Velars/g//k//?/Interdentals/e//θ/Glottals/h/Palatals/?//?//t?//d?//j/Vowelsapproximants(延續音）non-continuantscontinuants

╔===╗╔=======╗glidesliquidsstops/plosiveaffricatesfricatives

wl

╔===╗t??sfθ

jrnasalorald??zve

h

mpktnbgdsibilants(hissing)

?sonorantsobstruents(阻塞音）

(voiced)響聲?PalatalVoicedfricativezalveolarvoicedfricativeffricativevoicelessobstruentlabiodentals

wglideapproximantsonorantvoicedlabiovelarsVowelsTheheightofthetonguehighvowels,midvowels,lowvowelsThepositionofthetonguefrontvowels,centralvowels,backvowelslip-roundingunroundedvowels,roundedvowelsTensenessofthetonguetensevowels,laxvowelsRoundedvowels:/u://u//ou//?://?/Unroundedvowels:/i://i//e//ei//?//?://?/Tensevowels:/i://u://ei//ou//a://?://?:/Laxvowels:/i//u//e//?//?//?//?/ChapterFourPhonology1.Definition:thescienceorthescientificstudyofthesystemandthepatternsofthespeechsoundsoflanguages.2.Phonetics(語音學）：howthesoundsproduced,transmitted,received.3.Phonemes(音位）：speechsoundsegmentsthatcandistinguishorcontrastwordsinsoundandmeaningarecalledphonems.Phone:(音素）aphoneisaphoneticunitorsegmentinthephoneticallyrealizationofaphoneme.

ph2versionsofonephoneme/p/Phones2realizationofonephonemep=※Thenumberofallophones(音位變體）islimited.Allophones:Thedifferentphoneswhichrepresentorderivefromonephonemearecalledtheallophonesofthatphoneme.一個音位的不同變化形式音位變體每一個可以讀出的音叫做音素。一個音如果沒有讀出叫做音位。4.Phoneticrepresentation語音表達＆

phonemicrepresentation音位表達Phoneticrepresentation：ofutterancesshowswhatthespeakersknowaboutthepronunciationofutterances.Phonemicrepresentation:oftheutterancesshowswhattheSpeakersknowabouttheabstractorunderlyingphonemicrepresentationofwords.5.Minimalpair:whentwodifferentwordsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonephonemewhichoccursinthesameplace,theyaresaidtoformaminimalpair.6.Freevariations:thedifferentpronunciationsofonewordarecalledfreevariations.7.Complementarydistribution:whentwoormoreallophonesofonephonemeneveroccurinthesamelinguisticenvironment,theyaresaidtobeincomplementarydistribution.8.Syllables(音節）:asyllableisthesmalleststructuredsoundunitmadeupofarule-governedsequenceofphonemes.peak音節峰peakSyllableonset節前輔音[k?n]coda音節尾onsetcodaclosedsyllable:withacodaopensyllable:withoutacodaIfawordbeginswitha/L//r/,itmustbefollowedbyavowel.2./?/can’tbethefirstphonemeoftheword.eg./?ik/3./?//?//?//e//u/laxvowelscan’tendasyllable

有多少個元音就有多少音節。4.sonorityscale響音節mostsonorious5vowel4approximant3nasals2fricatives1oralstops/plosivesleastsonorious5.onsetpeakcodaCCCVCCCCeg.spring[spri?]eg.sixths[siksθs]/p/+consonant+alveolar/k/-voiced/s/+fricative/t/+stop+consonantal-vocalic+sibilant-vocalic+voicedChapterFiveMorphology1.word:isthesmallestmeaningfulunitwhichcanbeusedindependently.(1)詞匯的語法單位sentenceclausephrasewordmorpheme(2)Featuresofwords①stability②relativeuninterruptability③minimalfreeform(3)Classificationofwordsopenclass:whosemembershipisnotlimited,fixed,canberegularlyexpanded.Eg.Nouns,verbs,adjectives...closedclass:theycan’teasilyexpandtheirnewmembership.eg.Conj,pron.Num,articles…Variablewords:orderedandregularseriesofgrammaticalforms.Eg.study---studying---studied---studiesInvariablewords:thosewhichhavenoinflectiveendings.eg.Seldom/always/often

grammaticalwords(functionwords)虛詞：expressgrammaticalmeanings.Eg.Conj,pron,prep…lexicalwords(contentwords)實詞：expresslexicalmeanings.Eg.Nouns,verbs,adj.,adv….(4)Wordclassnewclasses①particles小品詞，助詞

to---infinitivemarker不定式符號

not---negativemarker否定符號

subordinate:unitofaverbalphrase.Eg.Goon②auxiliaries助動詞will,do,have,hada)inversionformb)negativeformAuxiliariesaredifferentfromverbEg.Will---willnotverbdon’t③proform代詞形式，替代形式

pro-adjectives代形容詞，pro-verb,pro-adverb,pro-locative代方位詞

eg.Myshoesisblack,soishers.HestudiesbetterthanIdo.Hehopestheexamwillbecanceled,Ihopeso.Thebroomisthere,inthecorner.Proform:awordcantaketheplaceofcertainwords.④determiners限定詞

pre-determiners前限定詞：all,both,half,twice,3timescentral-determiners中限定詞：a,the,this,that,these,thosepost-determiners后限定詞：ordinalnumerals,序列詞

generalordinals序數詞.Determiners:referstothewordswhichcanbeusedtomodifytheheadnounofanounphrase.2.MorphologyDefinitionMorpheme:isthesmallestmeaningfullinguisticunit.Morph:eachofthephoneticformsorvariantsisamorph.allomorph1.incomplementarydistributionfeatures2.havethesame/commonmeaning3.occurinparallelformationholdthesameposition/s/(morpheme)allomorph:/-z//-s//-iz//-ai-//-i:-/morphmorphmorphmorph

TypesofmorphemeFreemorpheme(root)自由語素：usuallycarriesthebasicalmeaning,canstandbyitselfasaword.Boundmorpheme(affix)黏著語素：italwaysbeapartofaword.Freemorphemescanbedividedintotwocategories:Lexicalmorphemes:thesetofordinarynouns,verbsandadjectiveswhichcarrythecontentofmessagesweconvey.Eg.Book,desk,happy…2.Functionalmorphemes:consistsofthefunctionalwordsinthelanguagesuchasconj.,articles,prepandpron.Eg.If,when,on,above…Boundmorphemesareactuallyaffixes.Affix:prefix:affixescanbejoinedtothebeginningoftherootorstem.Eg.Im-impossible,un-unluckyinfix:morphemesthatareinsertedintoothermorphemes.Eg.–um-sulat---sumulatsuffix:affixescanbejoinedtotheendoftherootorstem.Eg.Kind-kindness,teach-teacherBoundmorphemescanbeclassifiedinto:1.Inflectionalaffix/morpheme:justshowgrammaticalmeaning.eg.Teacherslearning2.Derivationalaffix/morpheme:isanaffixwhichisusedtoformaderivative.eg.remarry3.WordformationStemeg.FriendshipsrootsuffixstemdistemperedrootsuffixstemMonomorphenic單語素中stem=rooteg:songstemisthepartthatisleftafterremovingalltheinflectionalmorphemes.rootisthepartwhichisleftafteralltheaffixesareremovedinflectionalaffixesderivationalaffixes(2)WaysofwordformationDerivation派生法（衍生法）：isawaytoaddaffixestorootorstemtoformnewwords.prefixderivative衍生詞infixeg.understand----understandablesuffixhappy----unhappyWordclassunchangedun-happy----unhappydis-like----dislikeb)Wordclasschangedverb-nounn-verb-er/-or/-ize/-fy②compoundingCompoundsmadeupofsamecategoryn+n----bookstoreadj.+adj.----white-hotred-hotprep.+prep.----intowithinontouponb)CompoundsmadeupofdifferentcategoryPartofspeechofthecompoundfallstothe2ndelement.eg.Scarecrow稻草人n.v.n.Partofspeechofthecompoundfallsto1stelement.eg.Brother-inlawpasser-bylooker-onc)Thegrammaticalrelationshipbetweentheelementsofacompound.1.coordinative并列的bookstore,deaf-mute,classroom2.qualifier-head偏正的reading-room,snow-white3.subject-predicate主謂的man-made,sunrise,spoon-feed4.verb+object動賓的callgirl,playboyd)Spellingofcompounds1.thereisnospace.Eg.Football2.thereisahyphen.Eg.Snow-white3.thereisaspace.Eg.Red-lightdistrict※meaningofthecompoundsisn’tthesumofthemeaningofalltheelements.Eg.red-meat牛肉，羊肉white-lie善意的謊言

Red-cap空憲兵blue-stocking清高女子

Blue-blood貴族血統whiteelephant大而不實用東西

JackRobinson平常人③conversion:isthewayinwhichwegetnewwordsbychangingtheirpartsofspeech.④abbreviation(shorteningofclipping):isthewaytomakeawordshortenedorclipped.1.cutthefinalpart.Eg.Photo---photograph2.cuttheinitialpart.Eg.Airplane---plane3.cutboththeinitialandthefinalparteg.Influenza---flurefrigerator---fridge⑤Backformationeg.Toburgle(fromburglar)tobeg(frombeggar)toedit(fromeditor)tolaze(fromlazy)⑥sentence-condensationeg.touch-me-notstay-at-homeforget-me-not⑦blending1.initialpartof1st+finalpartof2ndeg.Motel,smog,botle2.initialpartoftwowordseg.Digicomdigitalcomputertelexteleprinterexchanger⑧initialism:somenewwordsarecomposedofthefirstlettersofaseriesofwordsandpronouncedbysayingeachletterinthem.Eg.CD,ATM…⑨Acronym:somenewwordsareformedfromthefirstlettersofaseriesofwords.Theypronouncedassinglewords.eg.Laser(lightwaveamplificationbystimulatedemissionofradiation)

Chaptersixsyntax:structureofsentencesSyntax:isapartofthegrammarofalanguage,dealingwiththestructuresofsentencesandtherulesgoverningthem.Partsofspeech/wordclass/formclassa)wordsbelongtothesamepartsofspeechhavesomedifferences.b)onewordcanbelongtodifferentpartsofspeech.c)Noun,adjective,verb,adverb,preposition,pronoun,conjuction…(2)Howtojudgepartsofspeecha)accordtomeaningb)distributionpositioninasentencec)inflection(3)Grammaticalcategory:grammaticalmeaningscanbeclassifiedintodifferentcategories,calledgrammaticalcategories.Inotherwords,agrammaticalcategoryistheclassificationofgrammaticalmeanings.Thecommonlyfoundgrammaticalcategoriesareperson,number,gendercase,tense,aspect,voice,moodandsoon.Person

①thefirstperson,thesecondperson,thethirdperson②thedistinctionbetweenthethreepersonsmaybemadebyappropriatesubjectivepronouns.2.Numbersingular+plural3.Gendermasculine+feminine+neuter4.Case①nominative主格whichmarksthesubjectofthesentence②accusative賓格whichmarkstheobjectofatransitiveverb③dative與格whichmarkstheindirectobject④ablative離格whichmarkstheinstrumentwithwhichsthisdone⑤genitive所有格whichmarksthepossession⑥vocative呼格whichisthecaseofaddressEg.Madam,Iwantedtogethimthegirl’s

bookwiththecard.

vocative

nominative

dative

genitive

accusative

ablativeHowtochangecase?Inflectionalending.Eg.teacher---teacher’sDistribution/position.Wordordereg.JohnbiteJohn.JohnbiteTom.3.Accordingtotheverbandprepositioneg.I’llgowiththeboy.

5.Tensepastpresentfuture6.Aspectperfectprogressivenon-progressiveverb=stativeverbeg.Know,hate,love,believe,have7.Voiceactivevoice+passivevoicepassivization:a)theactivesubjectpassiveagentb)theactiveobjectpassivesubjectc)theprep.“by”isintroducedbeforetheagent8.Moodimperativeindicativesubjunctive2.SyntagmaticrulesAsentenceisformedaccordingtophonological,morphological,syntacticandsemanticrules.Phonologicalrules:usedtoformmeaningfulmorphemes.Morphologicalrules:usedtoconjoinmorphemesintowords.Syntacticrules:usedtoformphrases,clausesandsentences.Semanticrules:appliedtothemakingofmeaningfulsentences.Combinationofmorphemesintowordscompounding,derivation,abbreviation,back-formation,blending,sentence-condensation,acronymization,conversionb)Basicpatternofcombinationofwordssubject-predicate主謂verb-object動賓

verb-complement動補coordinative并列

modifier-head偏正（2）constituentstructureICAorICanalysisICA(immediateconstituentanalysis)Definition:asentencecanbesegmentedintothesmallestmeaningfullinguisticunits,suchamethodofcuttingsentencesorwordsintotheirmeaningfulcomponentpartsiscalledICA.IC(immediateconstituent):thecomponentsresultingfromeachdivisionofaunitaretermedIC.Ultimateconstituents:theresultantsegmentationsorminimalgrammaticalunitsarecalled…S:NP+VP(+Adv)VP:Vtr.+NPNP:Art.+N+(PP)PP:prep+NPAdv.:adverbsofplace,etcPPVtr.:buy,sell…N:man,car…Art.:a,an,the.etcPrep.:in,on,etcHowtoICABracketTreediagram樹形圖3.SyntacticrulesT-Ggrammar=transformational-generativegrammar(Universalgrammar)Syntacticcomponent句法形Phonologicalcomponent語音音Semanticcomponent語義義Functionsofsyntacticrules:Theyaccountforthe“grammaticality”ofsentencesTheydeterminetheorderingofmorphemesandwordsTheyrevealstructuralambiguitiesofsentencesTheydeterminethegrammaticalrelationsbetweendifferentpartsofasentence.▲Ambiguity:somesentencesinthesurfacestructurearesyntacticallyambiguous.Theambiguityisnotsoeasytobeaccountedforbythetraditionalgrammar,butcanbeaccountedforbytheT-Ggrammar.WewillseehowtheT-Ggrammaraccountsforambiguityandthegrammaticalrelationsbetweenconstituentsinasentence.Ambiguitystructureambiguitylexicalambiguity▲sentence:isacombinationofwordswellarrangedbothsyntacticallyandsemanticallysoastoconstituteagrammaticallycompletesenseunit.declarative陳述句simpleSentenceimperative祈使句orcompoundinterrogative疑問句complexexclamatory感嘆句compoundcomplexChaptersevensemantics:meaningsystemoflanguage1.Someviewsofmeaning

Namingtheory:Platoawordisaname,alabelinourmindorinourexperience.Note:thetheoryhasitsownproblems,conj.Prep.Standforwhat?“tree”namestheobjecttreeintherealworld.referent(指稱對象）(2)Conceptualism:Ogden&Richards“semantictriangle”

(abstractideainourmind)

thought

(concept)Symbol………………….referent(theword)(theobject)Awordhasaconceptorideainpeople’smindassociatedwithit.Eg.Whentheword“chair”isspoken,theconceptofchairiscalledupinthemindofthehearer.Thereisnodirectlinkbetweensymbolsandreferent,thatis,betweenlanguageandtheworld,thelinkisviathought,theconceptinourmind.(3)Behaviorism:BloomfieldSRStimulusresponse(hunger)(shewouldhavemadesbgetanappleforher)SR………...SR(hunger)(shewantstogettheapple)(saysthtoJack)(gettheapple)(4)Contentualism語境論Firth“Weshallknowtheworldbythecompanyitkeeps.”Thecontextdeterminesthemeaning.linguisticcontextContextsituationalcontextForexample:Idon’tlikeher.Sheistallandthinandmoveslikeacrane.Idolikeher.Sheistallandthinandmoveslikeacrane.Supposethatwearestandingbyariver,andIsay“Iwasnearthatbankyesterday.”youcertainlyunderstandthebankasa“riverbank”,nota“financialinstitution”,butifweareontheWallStreet,themeaningischanged.(5)Meaningastruthconditions.真值T

Thebachelorhasasonofhis.Hisbrotherwastheonlychildofhisparents.SenseandReference意義和所指★Sensereferstoanyofthevariousmeaningsconveyedbyaword,phraseorsentence.★Referencereferstotherelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementsandthenon-linguisticworldofexperience.Note:Therearesomesentencesthathavesensebutmayhavenoreference.★ThepresidentofJapanisahandsomeyoungman.Sense:intra-linguisticrelationship---abstractpropertiesofanobjectReference:extralinguisticrelationship---objectcarryingtheseproperties.①everywordhasasense,butnoteverywordhasareference.eg.“but”havesense,noreference②linguisticformshavesomesense,butdifferentreference.eg.Theteacheristeaching.Theteacherisstayingabroad.③linguisticformswiththesamereferencemaydifferinsense.eg.themorningstartheeveningstarVenus金星（啟明星）④sometimes,somesentenceshavesense,butnoreference.Eg.ThekingofFranceisbald.ThepresidentofJapanisveryhandsome.SeventypesofmeaningConceptualmeaning概念意義：centralfactorinlinguisticcommunicationEg.Woman[+human–male+adult]boy[+human+male–adult]2.Connotativemeaning內涵意義：referstoemotionalassociation.Eg.Mother:kindness3.Socialorstylisticmeaning:referstodifferentsocialcontextsorcircumstances.Formal/informalliteral/figurativeEg.我的父親/俺爹4.affective/emotionalmeaning:expressionoffeelingandattitudeofpersoncommentary/derogatoryEg.Shutup!挑唆5.reflectedmeaning:referstothemeaningwhichisexpressedthroughtheassociationwithanothersenseofthesamewordorexpression.Eg.Gayhappyhomosexual

玉樹金錢6.Collocativemeaning搭配意義Big/largebigfamily:withalotofchildrenlargefamily:withalotofgenerationsfullmoon滿月

completemoon7.Thematicmeaning主題意義Theme主位Rheme述位Eg.I

boughtthebookyesterday.themerheme

Yesterday,Iboughtabook.themerheme4.Majorsenserelationsofwords.Synonymy(similarity,sameness)perfectsynonymeg.unvoiced/voicelesspartial(relative)synonymeg.Home/househot/warmThesourcesofthesynonyms①nativeelementeg.Pretty/lovelyfast/speedy②variantsanddialectseg.Luggage/baggage③foreignelementeg.End/finishheaven/sky④figurativeuseofwordseg.Walksoflife/occupation⑤euphemismsandvulgarismseg.Todie/topassaway(2)Homonymy同音同形異義（現象）isawordwhichhasdifferentmeanings,butisidenticalbothinsoundandinspellingwithanotherwordinthesamelanguage.