PublicDisclosureAuthorizedPublicDisclosureAuthorizedPublicDisclosureAuthorizedPublicDisclosureAuthorized

PlasticWaste

InRoad

Construction:APathWorth

Paving?

ApplicationofDryProcessinSouthAsia

PawanPatil?NatalyaStankevich?NinaTsydenova?ZoieDiana

PlasticWasteInRoadConstruction:APath

WorthPaving?

ApplicationofDryProcessinSouthAsia

PawanPatil

Natli

SouthAsia’smountaineconomiesofAfghanistan,Bhutan,andNepal

jointheregion’soceaneconomiesofBangladesh,India,Maldives,

Pakistan,andSriLankatocurbmarineplasticspollution.

ThisreportispartofalargerseriesofstocktakingandanalyticalproductsonplasticpollutioninSouthAsia.Thisworkisun-dertakenaspartoftheWorldBank’sworkprogramonSouthAsiaMarinePlasticsPollution,whichaimstopromotecircularplasticeconomysolutions,advancerelatedcountry-levelpolicyandinvestmentdialogues,andraiseawarenessofthedel-eteriousimpactsofmarineplasticspollutiononpeople’slivesandlivelihoods.ItsupportstheBank’scommitmenttoworkwithcountriesofSouthAsiatopursueandscale-uppoliciesandprogramsthathelpthemmovetowardacircularplasticeconomyand,inpartnershipwithcivilsocietyandtheprivatesector,harnessesthepowerofinnovationtobringviableandsustainablesolutionsforplasticwastereductionandmanagementacrosstheregion.

THEWORLDBANK

PlasticpollutionisawidespreadandpressingenvironmentalcrisisinSouthAsia.Althoughweneedtoturnoffthetaponplasticpollution,wemustfindwaystodealwiththeexistingmountainsofplasticwaste,muchofwhichisnotrecyclable.Meanwhile,someroadsmaybeapotentialapplicationofthisplasticwasteasdiscussedinthisnewreport,butmuchmoreresearchneedstobeconductedmovingforwardtoensureanynegativeexternalitiesareproperlyunderstoodandaddressed.

ChristopheCrepin,PracticeManager,SouthAsiaEnvironment,NaturalResourcesandtheBlueEconomy

Roads,andparticularlyruralroads,areessentialforconnectivity,economicdevelopment,andpovertyreductionacrossSouthAsia.Oneofourobjectivesistosupportourclientsinbuildingroadsandotherinfrastructuremoresustainably.Thisreportisanotherimportantsteponthepathwaytowardunderstandingthesustainabledevelopmentofconnectivitywithroads.

ShomikRajMehndiratta,PracticeManager,SouthAsiaTransport

Ournewreport,PlasticWasteinRoadConstruction:APathWorthPaving?providesafirstcloseexaminationofthetechnologyandprocessthatenablestheuseofdifficulttorecycleplasticwastematerialinroadconstruction.Withthousandsofkilometersofsocalled“plasticroads”slatedforconstructionacrosstheworld,includingSouthAsia,it’sagoodtimetoputaspotlightonthetechnologyandkick-startadiscussiononitsprosandcons.

JohnRoome,RegionalDirectorforSustainableDevelopment,SouthAsia

Astheglobalcommunitycoalescestodraftaninternational,legally-bindingtreatytoreduceplasticpollutionby2024,weneedtothinkaboutwhattodowiththeplasticwastewehavealreadygenerated.Theuseofplasticwasteinroadsmaybeonepossibleoptiontoapplythiswasteinamannerthatmayalsoreducecarbonemissions.

ValerieHickey,GlobalDirector,Environment,NaturalResourcesandtheBlueEconomy

Theuseofplasticwasteinroadsisanemergingtechnologyspreadingworldwide,througheitherpilotprojectsorroadsthatareinuse.ThisfirstofakindWorldBankreport,PlasticWasteinRoadConstruction:APathWorthPaving?putsaspotlightonthepossibilityofincorporatingplasticwasteinroadconstruction.

NicolaPeltier,GlobalDirector,Transport

PlasticpollutionisasignificantissueinSouthAsia,threateninghumanandenvironmentalhealth.I’mhappytohearofthisemergingmethodtoconstructroadsusingplasticwaste,whichmayotherwiseendupinopendumpsortheenvironment.Ofcourse,thereisnosilverbullet,andweneedtoensurethatwedonoharmifapplyingsuchtechnologies.

GuangzheChen,VicePresident,Infrastructure

Disclaimer

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Coverphoto:?AtkWork/PriyaRanjan/S

Coverdesign:IntiAlonso

SuggestedCitation:

PlasticWasteinRoadConstruction:APathWorthPaving?WorldBank(2023).

2

Methods

24

TableofContents

GlossaryofTerms

12

Acronymsandabbreviations15

Acknowledgements16

Abstract

16

Executivesummary17

1

34

Introduction

22

Roadconstruction

overview:theuseofvirginpolymer

26

Conventionalroadconstruction26

Useofplasticwastein

roadconstruction

28

28

Plasticwaste

5

Keyfindingsand

knowledgegaps

38

Environmentalsustainability38

Regulatoryandpolicylandscape:

examplesfromIndia42

Engineeringperformance42

Economicanalysis44

6

WayForward

48

Short-termresearch49

Long-termresearch50

References

Annexes

AnnexA.

AnnexB.

AnnexC.

AnnexD.

AnnexE.

AnnexF.

AnnexG.

AnnexH.

AnnexI.

AnnexJ.

AnnexK.

52

61

61

66

70

70

71

77

81

83

83

85

88

Listoffigures

andtables

Table1.

Table4.

Technologyreadinessofplasticroadsandlevelof

Resultsofsampleengineeringperformancestudies.

43

19

uncertaintyinexistingknowledgegaps.

Table5.

Figure1.

Plasticwastecostsforplasticroadconstruction.

45

PlasticRICsandamountconsumedinkilotonsinSouth

Asiain2018.29

Table6.

Costofnon-plasticmaterialsandrelatedprocessesfor

Figure2.

plasticroadconstruction.

45

Processofbuildingaconventionalroadorplasticroad

(wetanddryprocess).31

Table7.

Searchstringsusedtoidentifythosewhoarebuilding

Figure3.

plasticroadsandgeographiclocationsconstructedor

Timelineofkeyevents.Sourcesincludepatentsand

plannedplasticroads

61

DenningandCarswell(1983);Mercer(1997);Willis,Yin,and

Moraes(2020).32

Table8.

Keywordsqueriedinbriefbusinessdescriptionsin

Table3.

StandardandPoor’s(S&P)CapitalIQ

63

Wetanddryprocessofplasticroadconstruction.Sources

includeGillandAbid(2019);Willis,Yin,andMoraes(2020);

Table9.

andtheIRC(2013)specifications.33

WebofSciencesearchstring

65

Figure5.

Table10.

Plasticroadsusestatus.35

Plasticrecyclingcategories

66

Figure4.

Table11.

Mapofplasticroads.35

Sampleofplasticadditives

67

Box1.

Figure6.

Sampleofcompaniesandresearchinstitutes36

Numberofpatentapplicationsinoursamplefiled

Figure8.

annually(non-cumulative)from1935to2021

68

UseofMarshallStabilityTestand/orSuperpave

PerformanceGrading

87

Table12.

Percentagesofbitumensubstitutedbyplasticwaste

69

Table18.

Modelingassumptions

90

Figure7.

Numberofscientificarticlesinoursamplestudying

Table19.

eachplastictype

69

CEAResultsbasedoneconomicpricesof1kmofconstructedroadconsideringthelowerandupper

Table13.

boundofCO2*pricing(inINRandUS$,respectively)**

92

Geographiclocationsofplasticroads

71

Figure9.

Table14.

ShadowpricesofCO2andvolumeofCO2included

Businessesusingplasticwasteinroadconstruction

intheCEA

93

identifiedinS&PCapitalIQdatabase

76

Table20.

Table15.

RecycledPlasticPriceSensitivityAnalysis

94

SummaryofLCAstudiesreviewed

78

Table16.

ExamplesofstandardizedtestsbytheAmerican

SocietyforTestingandMaterials(ASTM)and

AmericanAssociationofHighwayandTransportation

Officials(AASHTO)associatedwithlaboratorybinder

characterization

84

Table17.

86

Commonlaboratorytestsandtestsstandards

toassessasphaltmixtureproperties.

GlossaryofTerms

Aggregategradation:Theparticlesizedistributionfromthelargestthroughfinestmaterials.

Aggregate:Ahardinertmaterialofmin-eralcompositionsuchassand,gravel,slag,orcrushedstoneofvarioussizes,usedinpavementapplicationseitherbyitselforformixingwithasphaltbinder.

Airpollutants:Thoseimpuritieswhichcausetheatmospheretobecomecon-taminated.Theseincludecarbonmon-oxide,nitricoxides,sulfurdioxides,particulates,andhydrocarbons.

Alternativematerial:amaterialtothosetraditionallyusedinconstruction,typical-lyitmaybeanindustrialbyproduct,arecyclable,atreatedmaterial,andsoon.

Asphaltbinderorasphaltcement:Adarkbrowntoblackcementitiousma-terialwhichpredominantlyconstitutedofbitumenwhichoccursinnatureorisobtainedinpetroleumprocessing.As-phaltisaconstituentinvaryingpropor-tionsofmostcrudepetroleum.

Asphaltbinder:AsphaltcementthatisclassifiedaccordingtotheStandardSpecificationforPerformanceGrad-edAsphaltBinder,AASHTODesigna-tionMP1.Itcanbeeitherunmodifiedormodifiedasphaltcement,aslongasitcomplieswiththespecifications.

Asphaltconcrete:Ahighquality,thor-oughlycontrolledmixtureofasphaltbinderandhigh-qualityaggregate,whichcanbecompactedintoauni-formlydensemass.

Asphaltemulsionmix(cold):Amix-tureofunheatedmineralaggregateand

emulsified(orcutback)asphaltbinder.Itcanbeplant-mixedormixedin-place.

Asphaltpavement:Pavementconsist-ingofasurfacecourseofasphaltcon-creteoversupportingcoursessuchasasphaltconcretebases,crushedstone,slag,gravel,PortlandCementConcrete,brick,orblockpavement.

Asphalt:Mixtureofaggregateandfineparticlesheldtogetherinabitu-men-basedbinder.Alsoknownasas-phalticconcreteinmanycountries.

Asphalt(ic)cement:Brownishblack,solidorsemisolidmixofbitumenfromnativedepositsorapetroleumby-productusedinthemanufacturingofasphalticconcrete.

Averagedailytraffic:Measurementofthenumberofvehiclesusingahighwayoverayeardividedby365toobtaintheaveragefora24-hourperiod.

Base:Themainstructurallayerofapavement.

Bitumen:Anaturalasphaltorsubstancefoundinanaturalstateoraresidueby-productfrompetroleumrefinement.

Bituminous:Containingbitumen.

Cement:Apowderedproductmadebygrindingclinkersoflimestone,clay,andothermaterials,andwhichreactswithwatertoformarock-likesubstanceusedtobondaggregatestogetherinconcrete.

Coldmixasphalt:Amixtureofemulsi-fiedorcutbackasphaltandaggregateproducedinacentralplant(plant-mixed)ormixedattheroadsite(mixed-in-

place).Coldmixasphaltcanbeproducedandstoredforusageatalaterdate.

Concentration:Theamountofasub-stanceexpressedasaproportionofthewater,air,orsolidinwhichitresides.Usuallyexpressedasmassofsub-stancepervolumeofliquidorasmassofsubstancepermassofsolid.

Concrete:AmaterialformedofaggregateboundtogetherwithPortlandcement.AlsoknownasPortlandcementconcrete.

ConstructionandDemolition(C&D)Waste:Materialincludingconcrete,bricks,lumber,masonry,roadpavingma-terials,rebarandplastergeneratedfrombothhomeowners’andcontractors’con-structionordemolitionprojects.

Contaminant:Achemical,microorgan-ism,orparticulatecomponentthatisnormallyabsentfromtheenvironmentalcompartmentinwhichitresides,orwhichispresentatanelevatedconcentration.

Crack:Anapproximatelyverticalran-domcleavageofthepavementcausedbytrafficloading,thermalstressesand/oragingofthebinder.

Deflection:Aload-induced,downwardmovementofapavementsection.

Dispersion:Thethree-dimensionalre-distributionofasubstancedissolvedorsuspendedinafluidthatiscausedbylocalvariationsinmovementofthatfluidusuallyresultingfrominhomoge-neityinthepathway.

Dryprocess:Plasticwasteisshreddedandmixedwithpreheatedaggregatespriortoaddingbitumenat160°C.

Durability:Thepropertyofanasphaltpavingmixturethatrepresentsitsabil-itytoresistdisintegrationfromtheen-vironmentandtraffic.

Elastomer:Polymerthatdisplayselasticmechanicalproperties.

Emulsifyingagentoremulsifier:Thechemicaladdedtowaterandasphaltthatkeepstheasphaltinstablesuspen-sioninwater.Theemulsifierdeterminesthechargeoftheemulsionandcon-trolsthebreakingrate.

FatigueandCrackingResistance:Theabilityofasphaltpavementtoresistcrackinitiationcausedbyrepeatedflexing.

Flexibility:Theabilityofanasphaltpavementstructuretoconformtoset-tlementofthefoundation.

Hotmixasphalt:Highquality,thor-oughlycontrolledhotmixtureofas-phaltbinder(cement)andwell-graded,highqualityaggregate,whichcanbecompactedintoauniformdensemass.

Humancarcinogen:Substancethatpro-motestheformationofcancerinhumans.

Liquefaction:Processofmakingorbe-comingaliquid.

Mechanicalrecycling:Operationsthatrecoverplasticsthroughmechanicalprocesses,includinggrinding,wash-ing,separating,drying,re-granulatingandcompounding.

Modifiedasphaltrubberbinder:Con-ventionalasphaltcementtowhichrecycledgroundtirerubberandcom-poundshavebeenadded,thatwhenreactedwiththehotasphaltcementcausesadispersionofthetirerubberparticlesandcompounds.

Patching:Whenthepavementbeginstodeteriorateduetotheinfluencesoftheenvironmentandtraffic,holes,rutsandcracksareusuallylocalizedatex-istingpavementjoints.Therepairofthistypeoffailureconsistsofsawingout,removingandreplacingthemate-rialwithnewPortlandcementconcreteorbituminousconcrete.

Pavement:Anylayeraddedtothenat-uralgroundsurface,Thepartofaroad-wayhavingaconstructedsurfaceforthefacilitationofvehicularmovement.

Penetration:Theconsistencyofabitu-minousmaterialexpressedasthedis-tance(intenthsofamillimeter)thatastandardneedlepenetratesasampleverticallyunderspecifiedconditionsofloading,timeandtemperature.

Performancegrading:AsphaltbindergradedesignationusedinSuperpave.Itisbasedonthebinder’smechanicalperformanceatcriticaltemperaturesandagingconditions.

Phaseseparation:Separationbetweentherecycledplasticandbinderinroadconstructionthatoccursunderstaticheatedstorageconditionswhichcanaffectroadperformancenegatively.

Plastomer:Typeofmodifierusedtopreventruttingandincreaseviscosityofmodifiedbinder.

Poise:Acentimeter-gram-secondunitofabsoluteviscosityequaltotheviscosityofafluidinwhichavalueofstressonedynepersquarecentimeterisrequiredtomaintainadifferenceofvelocityofonecentime-terpersecondbetweentwoparallelplanesinthefluidthatlieinthedi-rectionofflowandareseparatedbyadistanceofonecentimeter.

Pollutant:Asubstanceexistingatsuffi-cientconcentrationsuchthatitseffectsareharmfultohumanhealth,otherliv-ingorganisms,ortheenvironment.

Polymer-modifiedasphaltbinder:Aconventionalasphaltcementtowhichastyreneblockcopolymerorstyrenebu-tadienerubberlatexorneoprenelatexhasbeenaddedtoimproveperformance.

Post-consumerplasticwaste:Thesta-tusafteranitemhasbeenusedforitsintendedpurpose.Postconsumermate-rialmaybegeneratedbyhouseholdsorcommercialestablishments.

Post-industrialplasticwaste:Materi-althathasbeenprocessedinitiallyandfailedtomeetspecificationsorotherwisenotsoldasprimematerialandsoldtoan-otherpartyforreuseorreprocessing.

Pyrolysis:Thermaldegradationofplasticwastetoproduceliquidoil.

Microplastics:Plasticpieceslessthan5millimeters(0.2inches)inlengththatoccurintheenvironmentasaconse-quenceofplasticpollution.

Plasticizer:Substanceaddedtosyn-theticresintopromoteplasticityandflexibilityandtoreducebrittleness.

Raveling:Theprogressiveseparationofaggregateparticlesinapavementfromthesurfacedownwardorfromtheedgesinward.

Reactivepolymer:Apolymerhav-ingchemicalgroupsthatcanbetrans-formedintootherchemicalgroupsunderthespecificconditionsrequiredforagivenreactionorapplication.

Reclaimedasphaltpavement(RAP):Excavatedasphaltpavementthathasbeenpulverized,usuallybymilling,andisusedlikeanaggregateintherecyclingofasphaltpavements.

Reclaimedasphaltshingles:Discard-edroofingshinglesthatareusedlikeanaggregateintherecyclingofasphaltpavements.

Recycledasphaltmix:Amixturepro-ducedafterprocessingexistingasphaltpavementmaterials.Therecycledmixmaybeproducedbyhotorcoldmixingataplant,orbyprocessingthemateri-alscoldandin-place.

Recycling:Separating,collecting,pro-cessing,andreprocessing,ofteneitherchemicallyormechanically,ofamate-rialforuseinanewmaterialorproduct.

Rutting:Channeleddepressionsthatsometimesdevelopinthewheelpathsofanasphaltpavement.

Shoving:Atypeofpavementdistortion.Thesedistortionsusuallyoccuratpointswheretrafficstartsandstops,onhillswherevehiclesbrakeonthedowngrade,onsharpcurves,orwherevehicleshitabumpandbounceupanddown.Theyoccurinasphaltlayersthatlackstability.

Skidresistance:Theabilityofanas-phaltpavingsurface,particularlywhenwet,toofferresistancetoslippingorskidding.Thefactorsforobtaininghighskidresistancearegenerallythesameasthoseforobtaininghighstabil-ity.Properasphaltcontentandaggre-

gatewitharoughsurfacetexturearethegreatestcontributors.Theaggre-gatemustnotonlyhavearoughsur-facetexture,butalsoresistpolishing.

Solubility:Ameasureofthepurityofasphaltcement.Theabilityofthepor-tionoftheasphaltcementthatissolu-bletobedissolvedinaspecifiedsolvent.

Stability:Theabilityofanasphaltpav-ingmixturestoresistdeformationfromimposedloads.Stabilitydependsonbothinternalfrictionandcohesion.

SuperpaveMixDesign:Anasphaltmix-turedesignsystemthatintegratestheselectionofmaterials(asphalt,aggre-gate)andvolumetricproportioningwiththeproject’sclimateanddesigntraffic.

Superpave?:Shortfor“SuperiorPer-formingAsphaltPavement”–aper-formance-basedsystemforselectingandspecifyingasphaltbindersandfordevelopinganasphaltmixturedesign.

Virginpolymer:Polymerresinproducedfrompetrochemicalfeedstock,suchasnaturalgasorcrudeoil,whichhasneverbeenusedorprocessedbefore.

Viscositygrading:Aclassificationsys-temofasphaltcementsbasedonviscos-ityrangesat60°C(140°F).Aminimumviscosityat135°C(275°F)isalsousual-lyspecified.Thepurposeistoprescribelimitingvaluesofconsistencyatthesetwotemperatures.Approximately60°C(140°F)isthemaximumtemperatureofanasphaltpavementsurfaceinserviceintheUnitedStates.Approximately135°C(275°F)isthemixingandlaydowntem-peraturesforhotmixasphaltpavements.

Viscosity:Ameasureoftheresistancetoflowofaliquid.Itisonemethodofmeasuringtheconsistencyofasphalt.

Wastenitrilerubber:Syntheticrubbermadefromacopolymerofacrylonitrileandbutadiene.

WearingCourse:Toplayerofanas-phaltstructurethatisdesignedtoaccommodatetrafficloadandresistskiddingandadverseweather.

Wetprocess:Recycledplasticsintheformofpowderareaddedtobitumen,heatedat160–170°C,mechanicallymixed,andthentheaggregateisadded.

Acronymsandabbreviations

AASHTO:AmericanAssociationofStateHighwayandTransportationOfficials

ABI:AbstractedBusinessInformation

ABS:Acrylonitrile–Butadiene–Styrene

APP:AmmoniaPolyphosphate

ASTM:AmericanSocietyforTestingandMaterials

Cd:Cadmium

CO2:Carbondioxide

Cr:Chromium

Cu:Copper

LAST:LaboratoryAsphaltStabilityTest

LCA:LifeCycleAssessment

LLDPE:Linearlow-densitypolyethylene

LDPE:Low-densitypolyethylene

LSGD:LocalSelfGovernmentDepart-ment,Kerala,India

MMT:Millionmetrictons

MoEFCC:MinistryofEnvironment,Forest,andClimateChange,GovernmentofIndia

MoRd:MinistryofRuralDevelopment,GovernmentofIndia

PV:Presentvalue

PVC:Polyvinylchloride

PWD:PublicWorksDepartment

RAP:ReclaimedAsphaltPavement

RET:Reactiveelastomericterpolymer

RIC:Resinidentificationcodes

S&P:StandardandPoor

SAR:SouthAsiaRegion

SDBC:Semi-densebituminousconcrete

SBS:Styrene–Ethylene–Butylene

CEA:Cost-effectivenessanalysis

CSIR:CentralRoadResearchInstitute,India

EEEIndex:Energy,EnvironmentalandEconomicIndex

EVA:EthyleneVinylAcetate

GMA:GlycidylMethacrylate

HAP:hazardousairpollutants

HDPE:High-DensityPolyethylene

IDT:IndirectTensileTest

INR:Indianrupee

IRCSP:IndianRoadsCongressSpecialProvision

KHRI:KeralaHighwayResearchInstitute

KPMG:KlynveldPeatMarwickGoerdeler

MoRTH:MinistryofRoadTransportandHighways,GovernmentofIndia

NCAT:NationalCenterforAsphaltTechnology

NHAI:NationalHighwayAuthorityofIndia

Ni:Nickel

NJDOT:NewJerseyDepartmentofTransportation

Pb:Lead

PC:Polycarbonate

PE:Polyethylene

PET:Polyethyleneterephthalate

PP:Polypropylene

PPA:Polyphosphoricacid

PS:Polystyrene

SLRM:Solidliquidresourcemanagement

SWIS:SolidWasteInstituteforSustain-ability

SIS:Styrene–Isoprene–Styrene

SWaCH:SolidWasteCollectionandHandling

TxDOT:TexasDepartmentofTranspor-tation

UK:UnitedKingdom

UNEA:UnitedNationsEnvironmentAssembly

US:UnitedStates

USHRP:UnitedStatesStrategicHigh-wayResearchProgram

Zn:Zinc

Acknowledgements

ThisreportwaspreparedbyPawanPa-til,TaskTeamLeaderandSeniorEcono-mist,NatalyaStankevich,Co-TaskTeamLeaderandSeniorTransportSpecialist,NinaTsydenova,EnvironmentalSpe-cialist,andZoieDiana,PlasticWasteManagementConsultantandPh.D.CandidateintheMarineScienceandConservationDivisionandIntegratedToxicologyandEnvironmentalHealthProgramatDukeUniversity.WewouldalsoliketoacknowledgeBushraNishat,EnvironmentalSpecialist,WorldBank,andKatePankowska,EconomicsCon-sultantfortheircontributions.

TheteamisgratefultoChristopheCrepin,PracticeManager,SouthAsiaEnvironment,NaturalResourcesandBlueEconomy,andShomikMehndiratta,PracticeManager,SouthAsiaTransport,aswellastoCecileFruman,DirectorforRegionalIntegration,andJohnRoom,Re-gionalDirectorforSustainableDevelop-ment,fortheirleadershipandguidanceprovidedtousinthecourseofthisstudy. Thisreportbenefitedextensive-lyfromcommentsandsuggestionsprovidedbytheseveralpeerreview-ers—Dr.SahadatHossain,Professor,UniversityofTexas;PratapTvgssshrk,SeniorTransportSpecialist,WorldBank;TracyHart,GlobalLead,Environmen-talRiskManagement(ERM)&FragileandConflictStates(FCS),WorldBank;DelphineArri,SeniorEnvironmen-

talEngineer,WorldBank;andKreme-naIonkova,LeadUrbanSpecialist;andReenuAneja,SeniorTransportSpe-cialist.FurtherthankstothefollowingWorldBankstafffortheirtechnicalex-pertiseanddiscussions,whichinformedthereport:NagarajaRaoHarshadeep,LeadEnvironmentSpecialist,IndranilBose,Consultant,BalakrishnaMenonParameswaran,LeadUrbanSpecialist,ElifAyhan,SeniorDisasterRiskMan-agementSpecialist,DeepakSingh,LeadDisasterRiskManagementSpe-cialist,andArnabBandyopadhyay,LeadTransportSpecialist.

Specialthanksareextendedtothefollowingpeoplefortheirextensivediscussions,technicalexpertise,andinvaluablecontributionstothestudywhichhaveinformedthisreport:AnandSingh,IndianAdministrativeService,oftheGovernmentofKerala;DeveshTi-wariandAmbikaBehl,CentralRoadResearchInstitute;SankarVAssistantDirector,andThomasJohn,AssistantDirector,KeralaHighwayResearchIn-stitute.WewouldliketothankAma-liaCymrot-Wu,WorldBankInternandShort-TermTemporaryforresearchas-sistance.WealsothankDr.CassieCas-torena,AssociateProfessoratNorthCarolinaStateUniversityandDr.FanYin,AssistantDirectoroftheNationalCenterforAsphaltTechnologyandAs-sistantResearchProfessoratAuburn

Universityfortheirinterviewsandex-pertreview.Additionally,wewouldliketothankJaneDay,AssociateDirector/ManagerofPublicServicesatFordLi-braryinDukeUniversity’sFuquaSchoolofBusinessforherhelpindeterminingsearchstrings.Lastly,wethankErikKievit(PlasticRoads),PetkoKrastev(Dow),SeanWeaver(Neopave),Ekk-asitLakkananithiphan(Dow),UyenMai(Dow),andSonNguyen(Dow