第第6生產(chǎn)系NatureNature生產(chǎn)函Theproductionfunctionspecifies(指定)theumoutputthatcanbeproducedwitha tyofItisdefinedforagivenstateofengineeringandtechnicalknowledge.ItlookslikeQ=F(K,L, Q=Qisthe tyofsomeproductsyouwanttoproduce.Kisthecapitalor ntandequipmentthatyouwillneedfortheproduction.Listhenumberofemployeesor tyofRisacatch-all(包括所有的)termforotherthingslikerawmaterials原料andenergy.Fisthestateofthecurrent 專業(yè)術(shù)Theproductionfunctionspecifiesumoutputthatcanbeproducedwitha tyofinputsforagivenstateofengineeringandtechnicalknowledge.。②在給定的 背景知在給定的工程和技術(shù)知識條件的含義Forexample,wecanimagineabookoftechnicalspecificationsthatshowstheproductionfunctionforgenerating 關(guān)于生產(chǎn)函數(shù)的不同認(rèn) 總產(chǎn)量和平均產(chǎn)TotalTotalproductdesignatesthetotalamountofoutputproducedinphysicalunits.Averageproductequalstotalproductdividedbytotalunitsofinput.

總產(chǎn)量和平均產(chǎn)量關(guān)系圖

總產(chǎn)量下量增

邊際產(chǎn)Themarginalproduct(邊際產(chǎn)量ofaninputsuchaslaboristheextraoutputaddedby1extraunitofthatinputwhileotherinputsareholdconstant. 邊際產(chǎn)量圖Add1unitofsomeinputAdd1unitofsomeinputandholdotherinputsconstantTheMPisextraoutput.++1Q +1Q最大產(chǎn)勞動的邊際產(chǎn)量的含義是：投入N+1單位勞動時的最大產(chǎn)量與投入N單位勞動時的增加1單位勞動后，所有的分工都要按最優(yōu)方式重新安排，然后得出投入N+1勞動 of MarginalproductMarginalproduct(perunitof 0

邊際產(chǎn)量和總產(chǎn)量關(guān)系圖

總產(chǎn)量速上

總產(chǎn)量下生產(chǎn)的比例生產(chǎn)要求投入多種要素，而且要間通入要間的比例性高一些，有些則要求 遞減規(guī)Inproductiontheory,wehavetofirstrememberthatintheshortrun,capitalisfixedbutfactorslikelaborarevariable.Atsomepointthen,theextraormarginalproductofeachadditionalworkermustbegintodecrease.That’sthelawofdiminishing 遞減圖Marginal一種投入的數(shù)量由0逐Marginal Q1 規(guī) 問Whatwouldhappentowheatproductionland,labor,water,andotherinputswereincreasedbythesameproportion(比例)?Thesequestionsrefertothereturnstoscale a>

規(guī) 圖

?a>ba<ba=Q 規(guī) 的三種情Therearethreeimportantcasesofreturnstoscale:constantreturnstoscale(規(guī) 不變increasingreturnstoscale(規(guī) 遞增decreasingreturnstoscale(規(guī) 遞減 規(guī) 不Constantreturnstoscaledenoteacasewhereachangeinallinputsleadstoaproportional成比例的changeinManyhandicraftindustries手藝行業(yè))showconstantreturns.QKaQK 1980年代的銀行兼 ysts(分析家)thoughtthatthemergers(兼并wouldreducetheunitcostsofbankingdramatically(引人注目地).Studiesfoundthatthemergersdidnotsignificantly(顯著地)decreasecosts.Onepossible nationisreturnstoscaleoverabroadspectrum(光譜)ofoutput. 規(guī) 遞Increasingreturnstoscalearisewhenincreaseinallinputsleadstoamore-than-proportional(更大的比例)increaseinthelevelofoutput.QKaQK 影響規(guī) 遞增的因Relatedlaborspecialization專業(yè)化managerial管理的efficientby-products(副產(chǎn)品andothersuch TheB-2or"StealthThePentagon(五角大樓)originallywantedtobuild132ofthe nesatacostof$580millionper ButtheSecretaryofDefense( slashed(大幅度削減)thePentagon’srequesttoonly75bombers(轟炸機(jī)).Theresult:Thecost nesoared高漲toover$800millionduetothelossof 規(guī) 遞Decreasingreturnstoscaleoccurswhenabalanced(平衡的)increaseofallinputsleadstoaless-than-proportional更小的比例)increaseintotaloutput.QKaQK 導(dǎo)致規(guī) 遞減的原Causesofdiseconomies不經(jīng)濟(jì)of ntmaygettoobigforeffectiveworkersmaybegintofeelalienated疏遠(yuǎn)的)fromtheirjobs. 的汽車工Inrecentyears,GM–theworld’scorporationhasfounditselfwithbothadecliningmarketshare(市場份額)andasubstantial(實際上的)costdisadvantageInfact,GM’slaborcostspercarare$800morethanFord’sand$500morethan 生產(chǎn)Economistsoftenthinkthatmostproductionactivitiesshouldbeabletoattainconstantreturnstoscale.Ifincreasingreturnsprevailed(流行),thelargerscaleofinputsandproductionwouldleadtogreaterproductivity. 短期和長Wedefinetheshortrun(短期asaperiodinwhichfirmscanadjustproductionbychangingvariablefactors(可變要素)suchasmaterialsandlaborbutcannotchangefixedfactors(固定要素)suchascapital.Thelongrun(長期isaperiodlongsothatallfactorsincludingcapitalbe “短期和長期”的說 技Technologicalchangereferstoimprovements(改進(jìn))intheprocessesforproducinggoodsandservices,changesinoldproducts,orintroduction(引入)ofnewproducts.Processinnovation(工藝創(chuàng)新engineeringknowledgeimprovestechniquesforexistingProductinnovation(產(chǎn)品創(chuàng)新):neworimprovedproductsareintroducedinthe ce市場 技 改變生產(chǎn)函20051995shiftsproductionfunctionupward.

P 產(chǎn)品創(chuàng)Seeingandhearing背景知 總量生產(chǎn)函Q=F(K,Qisthetotaloutput;Kisthecapital;Listhelabor.ThefamousCobb-DouglasproductionY=AKY=AK0.25L1- C-D生產(chǎn)函數(shù)的規(guī)模Y=AK0.25L1-Y=AK0.25L1-2Y=A(2K)0.25(2L)1-1.0025Y≈A(1.01K)0.25L1-1.0075Y≈AK0.25(1.01L)1- 生產(chǎn)力的測Wecanusetheaggregateproductionfunctiontomeasureacountry’sproductivityandtechnologicalchange.Inmeasuringproductivity,wedenotelaborproductivityastheamountofoutputperunitoflabor;capitalproductivityasoutputperunitofcapital;andtotalfactorproductivity(全要素生產(chǎn)力asoutputunitoftotalinputsofcapitaland 的經(jīng)驗數(shù)Totalfactorproductivityhasbeenincreasingthroughout貫穿thiscentury.Thecapitalstock資本存量hasgrowingfasterthanthenumberofCapital’srateofreturnhasremainedaboutthesame.Inthelasttwodecades,allmeasuresofproductivityhaveshownamarkedgrowthslowdown( 技術(shù)進(jìn)步貢獻(xiàn)的測 企業(yè)的本W(wǎng)hydoesproductiongenerallytake infirms:ToexploiteconomiesofmassproductionToraiseresourcesforlarge-scaleTomanagetheproduction 三種企業(yè)組織形TheTheIndividualProprietorship個人所有制Thepartnership合伙制TheCorporation公司制現(xiàn)代公司 特Theownership所有權(quán)ofacorporationisdeterminedbytheownershipofthe’scommonstock(普 Inprinciple,theshareholders股東controlthecompaniestheyown.Thecorporation’smanagersanddirectors(董事)havethelegalpowertomakedecisionsforthecorporation. 公司制的利Thecorporationmayhaveperpetual永久的)succession(連續(xù)性)orexistence.Thecorporation’smanagerscanmakedecisionsquickly.Corporatestockholdersenjoylimitedliability( eisdoublytaxed雙重征稅

背景知公司組織要點賦予權(quán)利必予以監(jiān)

背景知 組織經(jīng)濟(jì)Economistspointto(表明theimportanceoftransactioncosts(成本，費(fèi)用)indeterminingtheboundaries(邊界)betweenfirmandEconomichistoryhasshownthevitalimportanceoforganizationalefficiencyandinnovationinincreasingproductivity. 的問 的見按照的見解，是因為利用市場價格機(jī)制有成本（費(fèi)用），而利用企業(yè)組織生產(chǎn)可以節(jié)約成本。 自己并沒有給費(fèi)用下定義。此后的學(xué)者大概是遵循的傳統(tǒng)，都不愿意給費(fèi)用下一個明確的定義，即便