1、the words in a language. Inwords and words make up afamily, words are family-第一章1.A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound,meaning and syntactic function.2. Vocabulary refers to the sum total of allother words, vocabulary is composed ofvocabulary. If we compare vocabulary t

2、omembers.Sound is the physical aspect of a word and meaning is what the sound refers to. Sound and meaning are not intrinsically related and theircollection is arbitrary and conventional. For example, tree/tri:/ means樹 inEnglish because the English-speaking people have agreed to do so justas Chinese

3、 people use/sh/( 樹) to refer to the same thing. This explains why people of different languages use different sounds to express the same concept. However, in the same languages, the same sound can denote different meanings, e.g. /rait/ can mean right, rite, and write.4. There are generally four majo

4、r causes of the differences between soundand form. There are more phonemes than letters in English, so there isno way to use one letter to represent one phoneme.The stabilization ofspelling by printing, which breaks the synchronized change of sound andspelling. influence of the work of scribes, who

5、deliberately changed thespelling of words and borrowing, which introduces many words which are against English rules of pronunciation and spelling.-5 .Earlyscribes changedthe spellingof many words while copyingthings for others becausethe original spellingforms in cursivewritingwere difficult for pe

6、ople to recognize, such as sum, cum, wuman, munkand so on. Later, the letter u with verticallines was replacedwith o,resulting in the current spelling forms like some, come, woman, monk.The changed spelling forms are more distinguishable to readers.6. Words of the basic word stock form the common co

7、re of the Englishlanguage.Theyarethewordsessentialtonativespeakersdailycommunication. Such words are characterized byall national character,stability, polysemy, productivity and collocability.7. a. loose womanb. fellowc. pistold. greate.cowardf. fightg. policeh. drunki. womanj.girl8. haply = perhaps

8、albeit= althoughmethinks = it seems to meeke= alsosmooth= truthmorn= morningtroth= pledgeere= beforequoth = saidhallowed= holybillow= wave/ the seabade= bid-9. Neologisms refer to newly-coined words or old words with newmeanings. For example, euro(歐元 ),e-book( 電子書 ),SARS( 非典 ), netizen( 網 民 ), are n

9、ewly-coined words. Words like mouse(鼠標 ),web( 網絡 ),space shuttle( 航天飛機 ) etc. are old words which have acquired new meanings.By notion, words fall into content words and functional words. Content words include nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverds and numerals, which have clear notions; whereas function

10、al words are void of notionsbut are mainly used to connect content words into sentences. Content words are numerous and changing all the time, while functional words are small in number and stable. But functional words have much higher frequency in use than content words.Native words form a small po

11、rtion of the English vocabulary, but theymake up the mainstream of the basic word-stock which belongs to thecommon core of the English language. Compared with most loan-words,native words are mostly essential to native speakers daily communicand enjoy a much higher frequency in actual use.12. Denize

12、nsAliensTranslation loansSemantic loanskettleconfrerechopsticksdream-diepro patriablack humourskirtparvenulong time no seewallWunderkindtyphoonhusbandMikado第二章The Indo-Europe Language Family is one of the most important language families in the world. It is made up of the languages of Europe , the N

13、ear East and India. English belongs to this family and the othermembers of the Indo-European Language Family have different degreesof influence on English vocabulary . A knowledge of the Indo-EuropeanLanguage Family will help us understand English words better and usethem more appropriately.2.Indo-E

14、uropean Language FamilyBalto-Slavic (Lithuanian,Prussian, Polish, Slavenian, Russian, Bulgarian)Indo-Iranian (Hindi, Perian)Celtic (Breton, Scottish, Irish)Italic(Spanish, French, Italian, Portuguese, Roumanian)Hellenic(Greek)Germanic(English, Swedish, German, Norweigian, Icelangic, Danish,Dutch)3.T

15、he vocabularies of the three periods differ greatly from one anther. Old-English has (1) a small vocabulary (50 00060 000), (2) a small numberof borrowings from Latin and Scandinavian only and (3) the words full ofendings. Middle Englishhas (1) a comparatively large vocabulary,(2) a tremendous numbe

16、r of foreign words from French and Latin and (3)word endings leveled.Modern Englishhas (1) a huge and heterogeneousvocabulary, (2) tremendous borrowings and (3) words with lost endings.Yes, we can divide the developments in other ways, for example, OldEnglishperiod can be called Anglo-Saxonperiod.An

17、d Middle Englishmight start from 1066, the time of Norman Conquest. But in doing so, thelogical continuation of thee three phases of the original division is lost.4. It is receptivity and adaptability of the English language that makeit possible for English to borrow heavily from other major languag

18、es ofthe world, so that the English vocabulary eventually has becomeheterogeneous.5. The popularity of Englishlies in the fact that English is ready toborrow from other languages and to adapt itself to new situations and newdevelopments, that it has accepted elements from all other majorlanguages an

19、d that it has simple reflection and a relatively fixed wordorder. All these make the language comparatively easy to learn and to use.-course human events necessary people dissolve political connected assume powers separate equal station nature entitle decent-respectopinionsrequiresdeclare causesimpe

20、lseparationFrom the words picked out, we can see that most of thecontentwordsare eitherof Greekor Latinorigin.Whatwe left are mostlyfunctional words. This shows that Greek and Latin play a very importantpart in the English vocabulary.7. Latin borrowing can be divided into four phase: (1)Pre-Anglo-Sa

21、xon period,(2)Old English period, (3) middle English periodand(4) Modern English period. Borrowings in the first period are mainlycommon words such as wall, wine, kettle and so on; words borrowed inthe second period are mainly religious terms such ascandle, nun, church;the third period saw word borr

22、owed often via French such as frustrate,history, infancy and so on and in the forth period Words borrowed fromLatin are usually abstract formal terms like status ,nucleus , minimum.-eventful Latin + English hydroplane Greek +Latin Falsehood Latin +English pacifist Latin +Greek Saxophone German+Greek

23、 heirloom French +English Joss house Portuguese+English television Greek + Latin 9. amateur (late) finace (late)Empire (late) peace (early) Courage (early) garage (late)Judgement (early) chair (early)-Chaise (late)grace (early)Servant (early)routine (late)Jealous (early)savate (late)Genre (late)gend

24、er (early)Debut (late)morale (late)State (early)chez (late)Ballet (late)Jespersen s comment reveals theimportance of Scandinavian words in English. Just as people cannot live without bread and eggs, so English language cannot operate properly without Scandinavian words.11. allegrof . 輕快Altoi. 女低音And

25、antej 行板Crescendob. 漸強Diminuendog. 漸弱Fortee.強Largod.緩慢Pianoh. 輕Pianofortea.輕轉慢Sopranoc.女高音cherub （Hebrew ） chipmunk(American Indian )Chocolate(Mexican )coolie(Hindi)-Cotton (Arabic)jubilee (Greek)Lasso (Spanish)loot (Hindi)Sabbath (Hebrew)shampoo (Hindi)Snorkel (German)tamale (Mexican)Tepee (America

26、n)tulip (Turkish)Voodoo (African)kibitz (German)Wok (Chinese)sauerbraten (German)13. a.alligatorb.lococ.rodeod.bonanzae.igloof.blitzkriegg.wigwamh.canoei.hurricanej.boomerangk.ponchothe characteristics of the contemporary vocabulary can be summarized as follows: (1) the vocabulary is huge in size an

27、dheterogeneous;(2) it has tremendousborrowingsfrom all other majorlanguagesof the world; (3) the words have lost their endings;(4) it isgrowingswiftlybymeansofword-formationbecauseofthedevelopment of science and technology, social, economic and politicalchanges and influence of other cultures and la

28、nguages.15. the major modes of vocabulary development of contemporary are-creation, that is by means of word-formation; semantic change, addingnew meanings to old words; borrowing words from other language andrevival of old-fashioned words, which has a insignificant role.第三章1.a.morphemeb.allomorphc.

29、bound morphemed.free morphemee.affixf.inflectional affixg.derivational affixh.rooti.stemj.baseinflectional morphemes are the suffixes added to the end of words todenote grammaticalconceptssuch ass(-es), -ed, -ing and est (toshowsuperlativedegreeofadjectivesandadverbs)whereasderivationalmorphemesare

30、prefixesand suffixesaddedto words toform new words such as pre-, dis-, un-, -tion, -er, -ness and so on.Grammatical morphemes are those used to show grammaticalconcepts, including inflectional suffixes as mentioned above andfunctional words (prepositions, pronouns, articles, auxiliary verbs), forexa

31、mple, but, the, do and Was; lexical morphemes are derivationalaffixes including both prefixes and suffixesIndividualisticindividualist + icstem , base-individual + iststem, base individu + alstem, base in + dividuroot, stem, base undesirablesun +desirablestem, base desir + ableroot, stem, base free

32、morpheme =free root4. morphemeBound rootbound morpheme inflectional affixaffixprefixderivational affix suffix第四章Enumerate the three important means of word formation andexplain their respective role in the expansion of English vocabulary.The three means of word formation areaffixation,which creates

33、30% to40% of the total number of new words ;compounding,which brings 28%-to 30% of all the new words.;and conversion,which provides Englishwith 26% of the new words.Affixation1.Affixation,alsocalled derivation,isthe formation ofnewwords byadding affixesto stems.AffixationIncludesprefixationandsuffix

34、ationaccording to the types of Affixes used to forms new words.2.Prefixation is to create new words by adding prefixes to base whilesuffixation makes new words by adding suffixes to base.3.Generally speaking,prefixes do not change part of speech of base butonly modify their meaning whereassuffixesdo

35、 changepartof speechbut seldom modify the meaning of bases.4.The best way to classify prefixes is on the basis of meaning becauseprefixes only change the meaning of bases in general.5. non-smokerincapableimpracticaldisobeyinsecurityirrelevantimmatureinability/disabilityunofficiallyunwillingnessilleg

36、aldisagreementillogicaldisloyalinconvenientnon-athletic6. hardenhorrifymodernizememorizefalsifyapologizedeepenglorifysterilize-lengthenintensifybeautifyfattensympathizea. apologizeb. beautifyc. lengtheningd. sympathizede. to fattenf. falsify/hardeng.memorizingh.Sterilize7.a.employeeb.politicianc.par

37、ticipantd.waitresse.conductorf. teacherg.pianisth.examinee/examiner8.trans- = across: transcontinental, trans-worldmono- = one: monorail, monoculturesuper- = over, above: superstructure,supernaturalauto- = self: autobiography, automobilesub- = bad, badly: malpractice, malnutritionmini- = little, sma

38、ll: minicrisis, miniwarpre- = before: prehistorical, preelectionex- = former: ex-teacher, ex-filmerCompounding1. The three criteria are(1)stress pattern, that is, stress in a compoundfalls on the first elementbut on the secondin a free phrase,e.g. -(compound),- -(free phrase);(2) meaning,that is, th

39、e meaningsof acompound is usually not the combination of the meaning of the-） . single(v.-component parts, but the free phrase is, e.g. hot line(compound: busyline),hot potato(free phrase: potato which is hot);(3)grammatical unity,that is, the different elements form a grammatical unit, which does n

40、otallow internal change, e.g. easy chair(compound: a special armchair),easier chair(free phrase: a less easy chair).However, every rule has expectations. The same is true of the criteria.Three are examples against each of the three rules.2. heartbeat S + Vbrainwashing V + Omovie-goer place + V.-erba

41、king powder adv+n.far- reaching Adv+v.-ingdog-tired adv + adjlion-hearted adv + n.-edlove-sick adv + adjboyfriend S + complementpeace-loving V +Osnap decision V + Oeasy chair adj+ non-coming adv+vtax-free adv +adjlight-blue adj + adjgoings-on V +advWhereas conversation is the derivation of new words

42、 by adding zeroaffixes, such as single(adj.)There are two ways to form verb compounds. For example, first name (v. from first name) and honeymoon (v. from honeymoon) are words created by means of conversion : words such as proofread (v. from proofreading) and chain-smoke (v. from chain smoker) are f

43、ormedby means ofbackformation.-4.well-bred有教養的well-behaved守規矩的culture-bound含文化的homebound回家的needle work針織品homework家庭作業praiseworthy值得表揚的respectworthy值得尊敬的bar-woman吧女sportswoman女運動員nationwide全國的college-wide全校的clear-minded頭腦清晰的strong-minded意志堅強的military-style軍事風格的newstyle新款self-control自制self-respect自尊bu

44、dget-related有預算的politics-related與政治相關的water-proof防水fire-proof防火once-fashionable曾經流行的once-powerful曾經強大的news-film新聞片news-letter時事通訊mock-attack演習mock-sadness假悲傷sister-in-law嫂/弟媳婦father-in-law岳父 /公公home-baked自家烤的home-produced自制的half-way半途的 /半路的half-done半生不熟的ever-lasting永久的ever-green常青的age-conscious年齡敏感的

45、status-conscious身份敏感的campus-based 以校園為基地的 market-based 基于市場的 Conversion1.conversion is the formation of new words by turning words of one part-of speech to those of another part of speech. The term functional shiftreveals the actual function of conversion,i.e.change ofthe functions ofwords.thetermze

46、ro-derivationapproachesconversionfromtheperspective of derivation because it is a way of deriving new words byadding zero affixes,hence zero derivation.2.Although both are called derivation ,suffixation is the derivation of newwords by adding suffixes to bases,such as simple (adj). simplify （v.)G.mo

47、dernizingh.sterilizea.employees b.politician c.participants D.waitress e.conductor f.teacher G.pianisth.examinee,examiner8.trans-=across:transcontinental,trans-world9.Mono-=one:monorail,monoculture10.Super-=over,above:superstructure,supernatural11.Auto-=self:autobiography,automobile12.Sub-=below:sub

48、culture,subconscious13.Mal-=bad,badly:malpractice,malnutrition14.Mini-=little,small:minicrisis,miniwar15.Pre-=before:prehistorical,preelection16.Ex-=former:ex-teacher,ex-filmer-3 The classes most frequently involved in conversation are nouns andverbs.4 Verbs converted to nouns usually are related to

49、 the original verbs in sixdifferent ways.The new nouns converted from verbs refer to（1） state ofmind or sensation,e.g .desire(state of desiring); (2) event oractivity ,e.g.swim (the activity of swimming );(3) result of the action,e.g.buy (the result of buying);(4) doer of the action,e.g.bore (the pe

50、rsonwhom bores); (5) tool or instrument ,e,g, paper (doing something withpaper ) and (6) place,e.g. turn(the place of turning).Nouns converted to verbs are generally related to the original nouns insever different ways . The new verbs usually mean (1) to put in or on thenoun,e. g. peel (to remove th

51、e peel from );(4) to do with the noun,e.g.Shoulder (to do something with shoulder); (5) to be or act as the noun,e. g.tutor (to be the tutor) ;(6) to make or change into the noun, e.g. cash (7) tosend or go by the noun ,e. g. ship (to send by ship).5. When adjectivesare convertedinto nouns ,some are

52、 completelychanged ,thusknown asfull conversation, andothers are partiallychanged ,thus known as partial conversion.Adjectives whichare fullyconverted canachieve afullnoun status, i.e.havingallthecharacteristicsofnouns.Thatmeans theycantakea /anshorts ,finals.Adjectives which are partially converted

53、 still keep adjectivefeatures.They should always be used with the ,and they cannot take-s/-es-to show plural forms.Moreover ,the words can have comparative orsuperlative degrees: the poor ,the poorer ,the young, the very unfortunate.6. The changes occasionally involved are (1) change of spellingacco

54、mpaniedbypronunciation,e.G. Life/laIf/ live/liv/, breath/bre? / breathe /bri:?/ and blood /bl ?d/ bleed / bli:d/ ;(2) change ofpronunciation and stress ,e. g. use . n /ju :s / use v. / ju:z / and p/p :mit/ v. /p mit / and so on.7. a .stomach【 n. v.】b. Room 【n. v】.c.wolf n e/go v ne.familiar a nf.inn

55、ocent a ng.flat a nh.ah/ ouch int vi.warm a nj.has-been/might-havebeen-finite v nk.Hamlet proper n vl.buy v nm. smooth a vBlendingmotel(motor + hotel)汽車旅館humint(human + intelligence)情報-advertisetics (advertisement + statistics)廣告統計學psywarrior ( psychological warrior)心理戰專家hoverport(hovercraft + port)

56、氣墊船碼頭chunnel(channel + tunnel)海峽隧道hi-fi(high + fi delity)高保真音響cinemactress (cinema + actress)女電影演員Clippingcopter (helicopter)front clippingdorm (dormitory)back clippinglab (laboratory)back clippingprefab (prefabricated house)phrase clippinggas (gasoline)back clippingprof (prof essor)back clippingscope (telescope)front clippingchamp (champion)back clippingsarge (sergeant)back clippingmike (microphone)back clippingad (advertisement)back clippingtec (detective)front and back clip