1、1. John Fryer（ 傅蘭雅 ） （British）The Chinese Scientific Magazine 格致匯編）化學(xué)鑒原Translates more practical aspects of Euro-American science and technology into late imperial China.（Editor ofMirroring the Origins of ChemistryChemical Analyse 化學(xué)考質(zhì)An Introduction to ChemistryMethods of translating （to establish

2、a systematic nomenclature based on 3 linguistic choices）:（ 1 ） Using existing nomenclature （系統(tǒng)命名法）from native works on the arts andscience;（ 2） Coining new terms by creating a new character, inventing an descriptive term, or phoneticizing a Western term according to the Mandarin dialect;（ 3） Constru

3、cting a general vocabulary list of terms and proper names.-Why Xu Shou and John Fryer s translated names for the elements are still in use?-Because their method of translation was quite rational and not simply.2. Lin Shu famous for introducing the Western literary works into ChineseBorn in Fujian Pr

4、ovince in 1852 and received the provincial graduate（舉人）The most influential works :La Dame Aux Camelias 巴黎茶花女遺事；Oliver Twist 賊史Uncle Tom s Cabin 黑奴吁天錄The first person to bring many of the important works of Western literature to the attention to the Chinese for the first time and Chinese began to ap

5、preciate the value of Western fiction.Translation motives :（ 1 ） to cultivate patriotism: his translation intentions were to save the nation from subjugation and ensure its survival;（ 2） To educate the public: he hopes that the Chinese people could learn the pioneering spirit from reading the transl

6、ation of the novel.Translation Methods :（ 1 ） Omission（considering the Chinese culture and the Chinese reader s reception）: delete some contents for the sake of Chinese literary norms and Chinese reader s taste;（ 3） Addition（considering reader s expectation）:to publish and improve the original and a

7、lso to help the readers to understand the original and the Western tradition, making the translation more interesting and attractive and appealing;（ 4） Alteration(considering the Chinese reader s aesthetic tendencies): due to the social and cultural differences between the source and target language

8、s, he made some compensation or replacement;（ 5） Adaptation(considering the feudal Chinese ethics)Criticism of his Translations:(1) the choice of the source text(2) Mistranslation and Incorrect OmissionContributions of his Translation:1. ) to reconsider the value of fiction as a genre2. ) To change

9、people s disregard of foreign literature3. ) To exert a tremendous influence on later generation4. Fu LeiSome of his translations:Eugenie Grandet 歐也妮·葛朗臺(tái)Le Pere Goriot 高老頭Jean Christophe約翰·克里斯多夫Translation Ideas:(1) Spiritual Resemblance Theory : In terms of effect, translation should be t

10、he same as copying painting, for what is searched for is spiritual similarity rather than formal similarity; Translation would be easy if breaking the structure, and characteristics of the native language could convey the features of the foreign language and obtain the original spirit; The meaning a

11、nd spirit of the original, the fluency and integrity of the translation could be combined in one.(2) Translating as a holy career: Those who are not poets should not translate poetry, for what they produce will not only be unpoetic and it will not be like prose either; Measures of our adaptability:

12、our enthusiasm about the original work since emotional interest affects understanding and our artistic insight.Whatever the style of the original, it will always be unified and coherent.(3) Language of translation: paying too much attention to grammar, syntax and style is definitely not conductive t

13、o the creation of great works.He can hardly achieve translating it into Chinese to convey the tone of the original text and reproducing the mood and atmosphere in the translation.But it can serve as an important link between what goes before and what comes after in the original text.5. Qian Zhongshu

14、 ( Fortess Besieged )Works of translation:On the Art of Poetry 談藝錄；The Pipe-Awl Chapters 管錐編Translation Ideals :Realm of transformation (化境) ： describes what an ideal translation is like, differentiates the good translation from the bad, and contains hidden echoes of similar terminology from traditi

15、onal Chinese poetics and art criticism.(1) The highest standard in literary translation is “化”, transforming a workfrom the language of one country into that of another, this could be done without betraying ant evidence of artifice by virtue of divergences in language and speech habits, besides, pre

16、serving intact the flavor of the original.(2) a translation should cleave to the original with such fidelity that it would not read like a translation, for a literary work in its own language will never read as though it has been through a process of translation.(與奈達(dá)的動(dòng)態(tài)對(duì)等理論相似)(3) Misrepresentation ：

17、 訛 .The words transmit and entice explain how translation functions in cultural interchange; it acts as a middleman, a liaison as thoughplaying the role of matchmaker and bringing about a“ literary romance ” betweennations.(4) Translation was to save people the trouble of learning foreign languagesa

18、nd reading the original works,but now it entices the readers into doing the very thing. It arouses the reader s curiosity, causing them to yearn for the original.(5) The Chinese character for“ translation ” 譯 has etymological andassociative connections with the characters for“ seduction ”誘， “ error

19、”訛，“ mediator ”媒 and “ transformation”化(6) Sublimity ，化 : changing the form and retaining the content and style orspirit at the same time; a translation should be both smooth and idiomatic in the target language; should be faithful to the original in content or spirit andstyle;is an all but unrealiz

20、able ideal.6. JakobsonHe experimented with “ supraconscious ”(超意識(shí)的) poems, the co-founder of both the Moscow Linguistic Circle and the Prague Linguistic Circle.His essay “ On Linguistic Aspects of Translation ” extends the significance of translation to include intralingual and intersemiotic transla

21、tion.His emphasis on the functional role of linguistic elements in the translated text had a positive effect on the work of poetry translators3 kinds of translation are to be differently labeled:(1) Intralingual translation orrewording is an interpretation of verbal signs bymeans of other signs of t

22、he same language;(2) Interlingual translation ortranslation proper is an interpretation of verbalsigns by means of some other language;(3) Intersemiotic translation or transmutation is an interpretation of verbal signs by means of signs of nonverbal signs systems.Equivalence in difference is the car

23、dinal problem of language and the pivotal concern of linguistics. (差異對(duì)等是語(yǔ)言的基本問(wèn)題，也是語(yǔ)言學(xué)的核心問(wèn)題)7. CatfordFundamental Problems in PhoneticsTranslation Ideals :(1) The definition of translations: translation is the replacement of textual material in one language (SL)by equivalent textual material in anoth

24、er language(TL).(2) The general types of translationCatford saw language as a set of systems operatingat different levels, anddescribed broad translation types using three sets of criteria:A. in terms of the extent of translation, he distinguished between full translationB. In terms of the levels of

25、 language involved in translation, a distinction isdrawn between total translation and restricted translation(phonological translation and graphological translation)C. In terms of the grammatical or phonological rank at which translation equivalence is established, he distinguished between rank-boun

26、d translation and unbounded translation(3) Formal correspondence and textual equivalenceA formal correspondence is “ any TL category(units, class, element of structure, etc); a textual equivalent is“ any TL text or portion of text which is observedon a particular occasion.In his own words, translati

27、on shifts are thus “ departures from formal correspondence in the process of going from the SL to the TL.” :1) A level shift would be sth. That is expressed by grammar in one language and lexis in another;2) Category shiftsa. structural shiftsb. Class shiftsc. Unit shifts or rank shifts: rank here r

28、efers to the hierarchical linguistic units of sentence, clause, group, word and morpheme.d. Intra-system shifts(4) The limits of translatability(可譯性 )It fails where the difficulty is linguistic and those where it is cultural(節(jié)日，特殊意象)8. Peter Newmark (Englishman)One of the main figures in the foundin

29、g of translation studies in English-speaking world.Communicative translation and semantic translation(交際翻譯和語(yǔ)義翻譯) main contribution to general translation theoryCommunicative translation :1) responds to the representational and vocative functions;2) Is likely to be smoother, simpler, clearer, more di

30、rect, more conventional, conforming to a particular register of language, tending to undertranslate.3) In some sense, communicative translation, by adapting and making the thought and cultural content of the original more accessible to the reader, gives semantic translation another dimension.4) The

31、transition to communicative translation is basically makes the text smoother, lighter, more idiomatic and easier to read.5) “ Standardized English ” must be translated communicatively, whether a standardized equivalent exists or not, even if it appears in a novel or a quotation, unless the term is u

32、sed descriptivelyrather than operatively in the original text.Semantic translation :1) attempts to recreate the precise flavor and tone of the original;2) Tends to be more complex, more awkward, more detailed, more concentrated, and pursues the thought-process rather than the intention of the transm

33、itter to overtranslate, to be more specific than the original3) the transition to semantic translation normally reduces the unit of translation, and brings the text closer to the figurative and formal elements of the original.8. Lawrence Venuti(a distinguished American translation theorist, historia

34、n and translator)Translation Ideals:(1) Invisibility of the translator(譯者的不可見(jiàn)性)The Translator s Invisibility: A History of TranslationThe absence of any linguistic or stylistic peculiarities makes it reflects theforeign writer s personality or intention or the essential meaning of the foreign text t

35、he appearance, that the translation is not in fact a translation, but the “ original. ”The more fluent the translation, the more invisible the translator, and, presumably, the more visible the writer or the foreign text.(2) Foreignizing translation strategy(異化翻譯策略)Venuti defined translation as a pro

36、cess by which the chain of signifiers(意符，能指) that constitutes the source-language text is replaced by a chain of signifiers in the target language which the translator provides on the strength of an interpretation.Because meaning is an effect of relations and differences among signifiers alonga pote

37、ntially endless chain(polysemous, intertextual, subject to infinite linkages) “ resistancy ”(異化、反翻譯)Resistancy seeks to free the readers of the translation, as well as the translator,from the cultural constraints that ordinarily govern their reading and writing and threaten to overpower and domestic

38、ate the foreign text, annihilating（消滅）itsforeignness. Resistance assumes an ideology of autonomy（自主性的意識(shí)形態(tài)）,locating the alien （異己）in a cultural other, pursuing cultural diversity,foregrounding （突出）the linguistic and cultural differences of the source-languagetext （源語(yǔ)文本）and transforming the hierarchy

39、 of cultural values （文化價(jià)值層次）in the target languages.The translation of Buddhist scriptures:The initial period:An Shigao; Zhi Qian（Han Dynasty）The period of development:Dao an （East Jin Dynasty）; Kumarajiva （鳩摩羅什）The period of prosperity:Xuanzang（Tang Dynasty）Translation of western science（16 18AD,Mi

40、ng Dynasty）:Matteo Ricci （利瑪竇）Italian Jesuit priest, one of the founding of the Jesuit ChinaMission.The first person to translate the Confucian classics into a western language,Latin with assistance from the scholar Xu Guangqi. They translated Euclid s The Elements （幾 何原本）into Chinese.Xu Guangqi : h

41、e had coin so many new terms and to select carefully the accurate expressions of mathematical concepts and contexts from the wide vocabulary of Chinese.Three Great Pillars of Chinese Catholicism （中國(guó)天主教的三大支柱）： Matteo Ricci ，Xu Guangqi ， and Yang Tingyun （ Summary of Western Learning 西學(xué)凡； On Geography

42、 識(shí)方外紀(jì)） .Translations during Ming Dynasty had 2 distinguished characteristics:（1） the subject of translationshifted from Buddhistscripturesto scientific andtechnological knowledge;（2） Translatorsin this period of time were mainly scientistsand governmentofficials who were erudite scholars, and the We

43、stern missionaries who brought Western knowledge to China.The translation of science in the Late Qing Dynasty:Robert Morrison, Daniel Jerome,Benjamin Hobson, James Legge,Alexander Wylie.John Fryer.Yan Fu1 .Famous for introducing Western thoughts, including Darwin s idea of “ natural selection ” into

44、 China during the late 19 th century.2 .His heart was indeed not in technical translation but in the transmission of thepolitical ideas which he had discovered in the West so he translated a number ofkey works of modern Western thought:1） Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays （天演論赫胥黎）2） The Study of

45、 Sociology （群學(xué)肄言斯賓塞）3） ） The Wealth of Nations （原富亞當(dāng)斯密）4） On Liberty （群己權(quán)界論論自由，斯圖亞特）Translation Theory: faithfulness, comprehensibility, eleganceHu ShiHu originally emphasized 8 guidelines that all Chinese writers should take to heart in writing:1） Writing with substance （要言之有物）2） Do not imitate the

46、 ancients3） Respect grammar4） Reject melancholy （不要無(wú)病呻吟）5） Eliminate old cliches（杜絕陳詞濫調(diào)）6） Do not use allusions（典故）7） Do not use couplets or parallelism （對(duì)偶駢文）8） Do not avoid popular expressions （俗話俗字）or forms of charactersTranslation Ideals（1） Choosing those masterpieces of famous writers only;（2）

47、Adopting a vernacular prose style in the translation of those dramas of a verse style. He adopted a unity of faithfulness and expressivenessbe responsibleforthe authorto keep thespirit of thebe responsibleforthe readersand makehis versionthat were hardtounderstandcould neversucceed inthus clearnessi

48、nmeaning isof primary importance in； Book of Experiments 嘗試集1） a translator should original and secondly intelligible.2） The literary works educating people, and literary translation.Practice: Over the RoofsLu Xun s translation ideals:he insisted that “ he would rather be faithful to the original th

49、an be fluent to the translation（ 寧信而不順）” , he stressed that it was a special class of readers that histranslations were intended for the proletariat literary critics who had special class interests to champion. Extreme faithfulness to the original was a way ensuring that “ true ” Marxist literary th

50、ought be presented to those who wanted the facts as they were.He said “ The Chinese language is just too imprecise, and to this ailment, I believe we have to suffer some more pain and embody our thought in wayward syntactical structures ancient, dialectal, as well as foreign so that one day these st

51、ructures can become our own. ”P(pán)ractice: From the Earth to the Moon in 97hours 12 minutes.Zhou ZuorenTranslation ideals: prefers straightforward translation, that is : it should convey the original meaning and preserve the original style and express the original meaning as far as our Chinese language

52、 can do. In other words, it is faithfulness and expressiveness, Practice: Ali Baba 俠女奴Liang ShiqiuTranslation ideals ： having a book translated is to make it comprehensible, mistranslation is indeed unacceptable. Even though partial mistranslations are mistakes that may really be endlessly harmful,

53、you have nevertheless enjoyed reading them. It would not do any harm to modify the syntax somewhat and to make it peremptory so that the text becomes intelligible to the reader becauseit s nopleasureto grind through a text while stiff translationcan notpreserve the original tone of terseness and con

54、scious.Dead translation is very different, which is bound to be dead from beginning to end and makes no difference whether it is read or not, also,dead translation might as well involve distorted translation.Major works: Peter Pan 彼得潘， Wuthering Heights 咆哮山莊； Meditation 沉思錄Lin YutangWorks of transla

55、tion:The Chinese Puzzle 國(guó)民革命外紀(jì)Women and Knowledge 女子與知識(shí)Pygmalion 賣(mài)花女莊子Chuangtse浮生六記Six Chapters of a Floating LifeTranslation Theory:On Translation 論翻譯： he pointed out that “ translation is an artOn Poetry Translation 論譯詩(shī)He pointed out three “ responsibility ” and explained the implication.He also p

56、roposed three criteria for translation: faithfulness, fluency, and beauty(忠實(shí)、通順和美)He assumed four types of translation concerning the degree of faithfulness: literal, dead, free, and random translation.Words of each language have the beauty of sound,meaning,spirit, form, literary style and literary

57、form.Zhu ShenghaoZhu s work made up the core of the mainland-Chinese version ofThe CompleteWorks of Shakespeare , and the first volume is made up of 9 comedies while the second consists of 8 tragedies.Translation Ideals:(can be revealed from his self-preface of The Complete Plays of Shakespeare.)The preface consists of five paragraphs:(1) the significance of Shakespeare;(2) The situation of Shakespeare translation in China(3) His experience of translating Shakespeare and hardship involved in this process(4) His method of translating Shakespeare: to preserve the or