1、Landscape and Urban Planning(第一本)1、ABSTRACT - This paper traces evidence of the influence of the landscape on peoples health, from ancient times to the present day, noting how access to nature and attractive green spaces has been a recurring theme in descriptions of therapeutic environments and asso

2、ciated healthy lifestyles. It describes how the theme of health in the picturesque debates of eighteenth century England (including such concepts as active curiosity) was taken up and developed in arguments for the nineteenth century urban park movement in England and North America. Recent theories

3、on the mechanisms behind health benefits of nature and access to landscape are compared with claims made in the nineteenth century and earlier. The importance of access to the landscape appears to be as relevant as ever in the context of modern urban lifestyles but the need for better evidence and u

4、nderstanding remains.2、This paper takes such themes and looks back in history to understand how links between landscape and health have been described, conceptualized and explained in the past. The focus is on positive associations between health and landscape, rather than on environmental hazards a

5、nd pollutants or on negative experiences of wilderness and nature, and it explores the role of the landscape as a salutogenic context, not simply as a therapeutic place for those who are ill.3、While standards of evidence demanded for public policy and practice today are different from those of previ

6、ous centuries, people have identified connections between the landscape and health throughout history, and attempted to understand the mechanisms and reasons behind this relationship.4、A recurring characteristic in these descriptions of paradise is the healthful nature of the garden, supporting huma

7、n beings in every way, providing delight to every sense. They go beyond descriptions of landscapes that merely provide physical sustenance food and water to places important for all aspects of human wellbeing and that appear to resonate throughout history as an ideal kind of landscape for living.5、W

8、hat is of particular interest for the themes of this paper, however, is the recognition of the restorative and preventative health benefits to be obtained from gardens and the wider landscape for the healthy as well as the sick.6、The therapeutic nature of landscape experience and the basis of respon

9、ses to that experience were themes taken up even more avidly by humanist philosophy and the aesthetic debates of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.7、In the eighteenth century, the arguments tended to focus on the benefits to be obtained for the privileged few in society. More recent historical

10、 attitudes note how landscape and health are seen as inter-connected issues of concern for all levels of society.8、We see, in the parks movement, less emphasis on the psychological and emotional benefits of landscape and more on physical health and prevention of disease as the primary aim of access

11、to parks and green spaces.9、What is interesting about the arguments put forward by Olmsted and his contemporaries for the health benefits of parks is that they bring together the earlier, eighteenth century ideas about mental relief with the more pragmatic desire to counter disease and physical ill-

12、health.10、This research not only confirms the nineteenth century belief that access to parks could improve the productivity of workers but also suggests that eighteenth century ideas about the landscape providing for mental curiosity the picturesques active curiosity, giving play to the mind has a b

13、asis in modern psychology.11、The relevance of such history for current policy lies in the fact that western countries are facing a health crisis of alarming proportions as physical inactivity, obesity and mental illness increase. Awareness that environment, and landscape in particular, might play a

14、role in enhancing health, and perhaps prevent illness at a fraction of the cost of post hoc medical intervention, has been slow to influence government policy and spending but there are signs that this is changing (Bird, 2004, 2007).12、Some of the effects of nearby, attractive green space may be sim

15、ply to encourage people to go outdoors; lack of access to good quality natural environments, conversely, may discourage people from outside activities, or even going outdoors at all, which can contribute to seasonal affective disorder (SAD), limit production of vitamin D through lack of sunlight, di

16、srupt circadian rhythms and lead to insomnia (Czeisler et al., 1986; Lewy et al., 1998; Holick, 2004).13、Throughout history and across cultures, people have considered access to some form of “nature” as a fundamental human need and attractive, green and well-watered landscapes as an essential consti

17、tuent of the ideal, paradisal, healthy environment. Writers from the earliest times have recognized that the landscape not only provides for our nutritional needs, it also supports us at every level in our wellbeing. The challenge we face in todays society is that we have often created environments

18、for daily living and working which present more hazards to health than benefits. Global warming and natural environmental catastrophes remind us of the fragility of humankinds engineering and urban constructions at a world scale and we have seen how insensitive development and pollution can create p

19、roblems which transgress regions or national boundaries. There is, nonetheless, a common thread that runs through centuries of societal development in Europe a recurring recognition of the importance of landscape planning and design to provide therapeutic places for people.14、After a century or so o

20、f focus on medical interventions, health professionals and policy makers are once again open to an ecological approach to public health (Morris et al., 2006). They are turning to landscape planners, designers and managers for answers to questions about how to create environments that will encourage

21、healthy lifestyles. But they are also challenging researchers to deliver the highest standards of evidence achievable in our complex world of human/environment interactions.15、Today we need research that addresses 21st century demands and standards of evidence for policy and practice, so as to under

22、stand better how to take the health implications of landscape architecture seriously.Transforming shape in design第二部分1、This paper is concerned with how design shapes are generated and explored by means of sketching. It presents research into the way designers transform shapes from one state to anoth

23、er using sketch representations. An experimental investigation of the sketching processes of designers is presented. Connections between sketches are defined in terms of shape transformations and described according to shape rules. These rules provide a formal description of the shape exploration pr

24、ocess and develop understanding of the mechanics sketching in design. The paper concludes by discussing the important phenomenon of sub-shape and suggests that a computational mechanism for detecting sub-shapes in design sketches might augment explorative sketching by providing important opportuniti

25、es for manipulating and generating shape in design.2、In creative design, free-hand sketches are frequently used to record ideas for later use and to rapidly explore design alternatives. A key benefit of sketching, in fields such as product design and architectural design, is that it assists designer

26、s in the development of various characteristics of design ideas such as form and shape in a low-cost, fast and flexible way. 3、The challenge of developing computational tools to support sketching in the early stages of design has produced significant interest in the design research community.4、This

27、paper primarily outlines an experimental investigation into the sketching of architects and industrial designers. The investigation was particularly concerned with the developing form of design concepts, and the shape transformations that led to this development.5、Sketching is a common activity in a

28、 range of design disciplines. Although the styles of sketches may differ between different disciplines, the role that sketching plays is broadly similar in the creation, development, evaluation, communication and sharing of ideas.6、This interactive process leads to the generation of a range of relat

29、ed sketches where, to a greater or lesser extent, each design concept is related to other concepts that were generated within the same exploratory process.7、Over the years, there has been much research in developing computational systems can be used successfully to symbolically recognize meaning in

30、sketched shapes, and if the context is known then such systems can be used successfully to symbolically recognize specific design elements.8、While the source of these similarities might be hard to identify, the existence of the similarities suggests that the process of developing designs might trace

31、 logical paths form an original ideas to a final design. 9、Shape transformations in sketches have been studies as a way of understanding a design process. Goel, for example identified lateral and vertical transformations in sketches. Lateral transformations convert one idea into a different idea, wh

32、ile vertical transformations manipulate one idea into a version of the same idea.10、To develop the discussion it is useful to consider more formal procedures of transformation in design; to introduce the notions of shape rules and shape grammars and particularly to establish the phenomenon of sub-sh

33、apes.11、Cleary any pictorial representation of a design ,such as sketches, can be formally represented as a shape, and any design elements that can be perceived to be a feature of the design can be formally represented as sub-shapes.12、Shape grammars are defined according to sets of rules, and an in

34、itial shape to which these rules can be successively applied. They have been used as a means for analyzing designs in professions such as architecture and product design. 13、In order to formally describe shape transformations in sketches in a way that reflects the path followed by the designer more

35、information is required than can be provided by merely viewing the sketches.14、The experiment consisted of a series of design tasks that involved sketching. Eight professional industrial designers, four professional architects and two researchers in the field of architecture participated in this stu

36、dy. All participants had more than 3 years of professional experience in their respective disciplines.15、In both tasks participants were told that their first sketches should be a copy of the given staring concept as a common reference point and after that they were free to explore their own variati

37、ons of the design concept.16、While sketching, designers made use of an A4 paper-based digital notepad this gave the dual advantage of resembling a traditional pencil-and-paper environment whilst facilitating the recording of pen stokes via screen capture software.17、Participants produced a total of

38、just under 300 sketches and these were categorized by tasks for each participant. In our analysis the sketches were analyzed as abstract shapes, without regard to function or meaning.18、During analysis, the sketches were first ordered according to the sequence in which they were produced and then cl

39、ustered for each individual designer into design families groups of designs that represent variations of the same idea.19、Each individual sketch is also labeled with a letter and a number. The letters identify which design families sketches belong to and the numbers indicate the number in the sequen

40、ce in which the sketches were produced.20、Once the sketches were arranged and clustered into design families, shape transformations between subsequent sketches were identified and described in the form of shape rules.21、In order to develop a higher-level understanding of the shape transformations re

41、presented in these specific rules, they were grouped into general shape rule types and rule schemas.22、While the general rules presented here may be sufficient to capture the shape transformations of these particular participants the set of rules is not assumed to be complete,23、Structure transforma

42、tions are mainly used to explore different spatial relations between elements. Because Structure transformations tend to affect the layout of a design they are more likely to lead to radical changes than Outline transformations.24、A shape transformation is regarded as Substitute element only if the

43、added shape is new, meaning that it has not been achieved through any other type of transformation described in the presented list. 25、A transformation is regarded as Add element when a sketch displays an element that is not present in the preceding sketch in the sequence.26、In contrast to the other

44、 types of transformation in the list Change view does not represent a shape transformation of the design.27、In general, design families can be identified by asking participants to describe the connections between sketches. At this stage of the analysis, the contribution of the participant is essenti

45、al to avoid superficial and erroneous grouping of design based solely on researchers perception.28、In contrast to design families, shape transformations were more challenging to identify because during the interview process participants felt more comfortable describing the connections between sketches and interpretation of their drawing than describing in detail the shape transformations they applied between their sketches. Instead the transformations identified were largely based on the interpretation of the research