附錄1外文參考文獻（原文）ManagementInformationIystemsWriter:RaymondMcLeod,JrGeorgeSchellInformationisoneofthemainresourcesavailabletothemanager.Informationcanbemanagedjustasanyotherresource,andinterestinthistopicstemfromtwoinfluences.First,businesshasbecomemorecomplex,andsecond,thecomputerhasachievedimprovedcapabilities.Computerinformationisusedbymanagers,non-managers,andpersonsandorganizationswithinthefirmsenvironment.Managersarefoundonallorganizationallevelsofthefirmandinallbusinessareas.Managersperformfunctionsandplayroles；tobesuccessfulandtheyneedskillincommunicationandproblemsolving.Managersshouldbecomputerliterate,but,moreimportant,theyshouldbeinformationliterate.Itishelpfulifthemanagerhasanabilitytoseehisorherunitasasystemcomposedofsubsystemsandexistingwithinalargersupersystem.Thefirmisaphysicalsystem,butitismanagedthroughaconceptualsystem.Theconceptualsystemconsistsofaninformationprocessorthattransformsdataintoinformationandrepresentsthephysicalresources.Thefirstmajorcomputerapplicationwasusedtoprocessaccountingdata.Thatapplicationwasfollowedbyfourothers:managementinformationsystems,decisionsupportsystem,thevirtualoffice,andknowledge-basedsystem.Allfiveoftheseapplicationscomposethecomputer-basedinformationsystem.Whataretheinformationresources?Thefirsteffortstoengageininformationmanagementfocusedondata.Theseeffortsoccurredinconjunctionwithwidespreadadoptiondatabasemanagementsystemsduringthe1970sand1980s.Firmsreasonedthatiftheymanagedtheirdatabyimplementingcomputer-basedDBMSs,theywould,ineffect,managetheirinformation.Abroaderview,however,isthatyoucanmanageinformationbymanagingtheresourcesthatproducetheinformation.Inotherwords,ratherthanconcentrateontheinput(thedata)andtheoutput(theinformation),attentionshouldalsobegiventotheinformationprocessorthattransformstheinputintotheoutput.Thisprocessorincludesthehardwareandsoftware,aswellanthepersonswhodevelop,operate,andusethesystems.Alsoincludedarethefacilitiesthathousetheresources.MainTypeofResourcesThemanagermanagersfivemaintypeofresources:PersonnelMaterialMachines(includingfacilitiesandenergy)MoneyInformation(includingdata)Thetaskofthemanageristomanagetheseresourcesinordertousetheminthemosteffectiveway.Thefirstfourresourcetypesaretangible；theyexistphysicallyandcanbetouched.Weusethetermphysicalresourcetodescribethem.Thefifthresourcetype,information,isnotvaluableformwhatitrepresents.Thatisweusethetermconceptualresourcetodescribeinformationanddata.Managersuseconceptualresourcestomanagephysicalresources.HowInformationisManagedItiseasytoseehowamanagermanagersphysicalresources,butmanagementappliesequallywelltoconceptualrescources.Themanagerensuresthatthenecessaryrawdataisgatheredandthenprocessedintousableinformation.Heorshethenensuresthatappropriateindividualsreceivetheinformationintheproperformatthepropertimesothatitcanbeused.Finally,themanagerdiscardinformationthathasoutliveditsusefulnessandreplacesitwithinformationthatiscurrentandaccurate.Allofthisactivity-acquiringinformation,usingitinthemosteffectiveway,anddiscardingitatthepropertime-iscalledinformationmanagement.IncreasingComplexityofBusinessActivityBusinesshasalwaysbeencomplex,butitismoresotodaythaneverbefore.Allfirmsaresubjecttointernationaleconomicinfluencesandcompeteinaworldwidemarketplace,thetechnologyofbusinessisbecomingmorecomplex,thetimeframefortakingactionisshrinking,andtherearesocialconstrains.InternationaleconomicinfluencesFirmsofallsizearesubjecttoeconomicinfluencesthatcanoriginateanywhereintheworld.Suchinfluencecanbeseenintherelativevaluesofthecurrenciesofeachnation.Buyersmakepurchasesinthosecountrieswheretheircurrencieshavethegreatestvalue.Forexample,whenMexicodevalueditspesoduringthelate1980s,touristsdecidedtotaketheirvacationsthere,ratherthaninplacelikeHawaii.WorldwidecompetitionFirmsnolongercompeteinonlytheirowngeographicarea.Rather,competitionexistsonaworldwidescale.Theeffectsofthiscompetitioncanbeseenintheimportsfromforeigncountries.ThedecisionbyGeneralMotorsintheearly1990stoclosemanyofitsplansindicatesthatevenindustrygiantsarenotinsulatedfromtheeffectsofcompetitionwhichcanoriginateanywhereintheworld.Increasingcomplexitytechnology.Weseeexampleoftechnologyinbusinesseveryday-barcodescannersinsupermarkets,computer-basedairlinereservationsystems,automatedtellertechnologythatwedonotsee-factoryrobotsandautomatedmerchandisestorage-and-handingequipment,forexample.Firmsinvestinthistechnologytoperformnecessaryoperation.JustthinkwhatwouldhappeniftheL.L.Beanmail-orderoperationinMaineorHarrodsdepartmentstoreinLondoncouldnolongerusetheircomputer!ShrinkingtimeframesAllphasesofbusinessoperationsareperformedmorerapidlythaneverbefore.Salesrepresentativesengageintelemarketingtocontacttheircustomerswithinsecondsbytelephone,saleordersaretransmittedelectronicallyfromonecomputertoanother,andmanufacturersschedulerawmaterialdeliveriestoarrive“justintime.”SocialconstraintsOddlyenough,notallpressuresfavorproduction；somefavornonproduction.Thisistrueinthecaseofproductsandservicesthatsocietyfindsundesirable.Businessdecisionsmustbebasedoneconomicfactors,butsocialcostsandpayoffsmustbeconsideredaswell.Plantexpansion,newproducts,newproducts,newsalesoutlets,andsimilaractionsmustallbeweighedintermoftheirenvironmentalimpact.Eachoftheseinfluencescontributestothecomplexityofbusiness.PhysicalsystemsandconceptualsystemsThebusinessfirmisaphysicalsystem,composedofphysicalresources.Aconceptualsystem,ontheotherhand,isasystemthatusesconceptualresources-informationanddata-torepresentaphysicalsystem.Aconceptualsystemexists,forexample,asmentalimagesinthemanagersmind,asfiguresorlinesonasheetofpaper,orintheelectronicformofthecomputersstorage.Thecomputerisaphysicalsystem,butthedataandinformationstoredinitcanbeviewedasaconceptualsystem.Thedateandinformationrepresentoneormorephysicalsystem.Howthedateandinformationarestoredisunimportant.Whatisimportantiswhatthedataandinformationrepresent.Thephysicalsystemisimportantforwhatitis；theconceptualsystemisimportantforitsrepresentationofthephysicalsystem.Whatstimulatedend-usercomputing?End-usercomputingevolvedbecauseoffourmaininfluences.AnincreaseincomputerliteracyDuringtheearly1980s,goodcomputereducationprogramsatboththecollegeandprecollegelevelbegantohaveanimpact.Managementranks,