GlossaryConducive:adj.Tendingtobringabout;beingpartlyresponsiblefor.有助于的enactment:n.Thepassingofalawbyalegislativebody.（法律的）制定，頒布;法律，法規;扮演;humanitarian：adj.&n.Someonedevotedtothepromotionofhumanwelfareandtosocialreforms;markedbyhumanisticvaluesanddevotiontohumanwelfare.人道主義sophisticated:adj.Havingorappealingtothosehavingworldlyknowledgeandrefinementandsavior-faire.老練的，精密的entrepreneur:n.Someonewhoorganizesabusinessventureandassumestheriskforit.企業家；承包人triggered:adj.anactthatsetsinmotionsomecourseofevents.觸發的revitalize:v.restorestrength;givenewlifeorvigorto.是恢復元氣BusinessSchoolofNankaiUniversityKeyTermsandConceptsOperatingEnvironment:(內部環境)Anorganization'sexternalstakeholders:competitors,customers,suppliers,financialintermediaries,localcommunities,unions,activistgroups,andgovernmentagenciesandadministrators.BroadEnvironment:(外部環境)Socioculturalforces,globaleconomicforces,technologicalchange,andglobalpoliticallegalforces.MissionStatement:(使命)Statementexpressingtheorganization'soverallpurpose,broadgoals,andthescopeofitsoperations.VisionStatement:(愿景)Statementexpressingmanagement'sviewofwhattheorganizationcanorshouldbecomeinthefuture.BusinessSchoolofNankaiUniversityCorporate-levelStrategyFormulation:(公司層面戰略)Selectionofbusinessareasinwhichtheorganizationwillcompete.Business-levelStrategyFormulation:(業務層面戰略)Howorganizationswillcompeteintheareastheyhaveselected.Functional-LevelStrategyformulation:(職能層面戰略)Howanorganization’sfunctionalareasshouldworktogethertoachievethebusiness-levelstrategy.StrategyImplementation:(戰略執行)Creatingthefunctionalstrategies，systems，structures，andprocessesneededbytheorganizationtoachievestrategicgoals.StrategicControl:(戰略控制)Ongoingevaluationandappropriateadjustmentsofthemission，goals,strategies,orimplementationplan.BusinessSchoolofNankaiUniversityRestructuring:（流程再造）Streamliningandreorientinganorganization’scurrentformatofoperationstoplaceitinapositioninwhichitisbetterabletocompete;ofteninvolvesreducingthescopeofthebusinessatthecorporatelevelcombinedwithrefocusingeffortsonthethingstheorganizationdoeswell.SituationAnalysis:（環境分析）Analyzingtheinternalandexternalenvironmentsoftheorganizationtoarriveatorganizationalstrengths，weaknesses,opportunities,andthreats(SWOT).EnvironmentalDeterminism:（環境決定論）Theviewthatgoodmanagementisassociatedwithdeterminingwhichstrategywillbestfitenvironmental,technical，andhumanforcesataparticularpointintimeandthenworkingtocarryitout.BusinessSchoolofNankaiUniversityTextChangesintheglobalanddomesticbusinessenvironmentsduringthetwentiethcenturygaverisetotheneedfornewmanagementtechniques.Thedualtasksofefficientlyrunningalarge,oftenmultinationalfirmandguidingitscoursebecametoodifficultforanyoneleadertohandlealone.Neworganizationalformsemerged,withnewdivisionsofmanageriallaborandnewmanagerialtechniques.Also,whilethelargeorganizationsthatformedduringtheearlypartofthecenturywereinternallyfocusedonefficiency(amanagementscienceapproachcombinedwithbasicfinancialplanning),theysoonlearnedthateffectivemanagementinarapidlychangingbusinessenvironmentrequiredmoreofanoutwardorientation.BusinessSchoolofNankaiUniversityTextBusinessschoolsrespondedtochangingtopmanagementneedsbyofferingacourseonbusinesspolicy.Thebusinesspolicycourseappliedgeneraladministrativeprinciplestoavarietyofbusinesssituationsthroughcases,whichdescribedreal-worldbusinessesandthechallengestheyfaced.Itlesshostileandmoreconducivetoorganizationalsuccessarecalledenactment.Organizationsthathavereachedphase4intheirplanningeffortsengageinsignificantamountsofbothadaptationandenactment,asopposedtoorganizationsinearlierphasesthatfocusprimarilyonadaptation.BusinessSchoolofNankaiUniversityTextThestrategicmanagementprocessbeginswith(1)analysisofthebroadandoperatingenvironmentsoftheorganizationand(2)theorganizationitself,followedbythe(3)establishmentofstrategicdirection,reflectedinmissions,visions,and/orlong-termgoals,(4)formulationofspecificstrategies,(5)implementationofthosestrategies,and(6)developmentofcontrolsystemstoensurethattheyarebothsuccessfullycarriedoutandstillappropriateforthefirminitscurrentenvironment.Finally,strategicrestructuringmayoccurasafirmmakesmajorchangestoitsstrategicdirection,strategies,and/orthewaythosestrategiesareimplemented,usuallyinresponsetoinconsistenciesbetweenexpectedandactualperformance.BusinessSchoolofNankaiUniversityTextStart-upfirmsseldomexhibitthesophisticatedplanningprocessesassociatedwithphase4planning.Start-upsoftenbeginwithanentrepreneurwhohasanideaforaproductorservicethatheorshebelieveswillleadtomarketsuccess.Venturecapitalisraisedthroughavarietyofpublicorprivatesourcesandanewbusinessisborn.Theentrepreneurmayestablishaninformalsenseofdirectionandafewgoals,buttherestoftheformalstrategyprocessmaybeoverlooked.Iftheorganizationissuccessful,itwilltypicallyexpandinbothsalesandpersonneluntilitreachesacriticalpointatwhichtheoriginalentrepreneurfeelsalossofcontrol.BusinessSchoolofNankaiUniversityTextAtthispointtheentrepreneurmayattempttoformalizevariousaspectsofstrategicplanning,eitherbyhiringoutsideconsultants,bycreatingplanningpositionswithinthefirm,orbyinvolvingothermanagersinplanningactivities.Thissameprocessistypicalofnonprofitstart-upsaswell,exceptthatthenatureofthecause(i.e.,

humanitarian,educational)mayplacetighterconstraintsonthewaythefirmisfinancedandorganized.BusinessSchoolofNankaiUniversityTextNevertheless,theprogressionofactivities—fromanalysistoplantoactioncontrol—providesalogicalwaytostudystrategicmanagement.Furthermore,theactivitiesrelateequallywelltofor-profit,nonprofit,manufacturing,andserviceorganizations,althoughsomeofthedifferencesinthewaytheseorganizationsapproachingstrategicmanagementaredescribedthroughoutthetext.BusinessSchoolofNankaiUniversityTextEnvironmentalandOrganizationalAnalysisThisbookutilizesastakeholderapproachtostrategicmanagement.Justasthechiefaimofanorganizationisthesatisfactionofitskeystakeholders,thesestakeholdersformthebasisforanalysisoftheenvironmentandtheorganization.Forthepurposesofthisbook,anorganization'senvironmentincludesgroups,individuals,andforcesoutsideofthetraditionalboundariesoftheorganizationthataresignificantlyinfluencedbyorhaveamajorimpactontheorganization.Theorganizationincludesallofthestakeholders,resources,andprocessesthatexistwithintheboundariesofthefirm.BusinessSchoolofNankaiUniversityTextExamplesofkeystakeholderswithintheorganizationaremanagers,employees,andowners.Organizationalanalysis,alsoincludesabroaderevaluationofalloftheorganization'sresourcesandcapabilities.Externalstakeholders,whichareapartofanorganization'soperatingenvironment,includecompetitors,customers,suppliers,financialintermediaries,localcommunities,unions,activistgroups,andgovernmentagenciesandadministrators.ThesegroupsarediscussedinChapter3.Thebroadenvironmentformsthecontextinwhichtheorganizationanditsoperatingenvironmentexist,andincludessocioculturalforces,globaleconomicforces,technologicalchange,andglobalpoliticalandlegalforces.Oneorganization,actingindependentlycanhaveverylittleinfluenceontheforcesinthebroadenvironment;however,theforcesinthisenvironmentcanhaveatremendousimpactontheorganization.BusinessSchoolofNankaiUniversityTextAllofthestakeholdersinsideandoutsideoftheorganizationshouldbeanalyzedatboththedomesticandinternationallevels.Inallofthecountriesinwhichacompanyoperates,managersmustinteractwithgovernmentagencies,employees,competitors,andactivistgroups.Inaddition,theglobalperspectivecertainlyappliestosociocultural,political,economic,andtechnologicalforces.Analyzingtheenvironmentandtheorganizationassisttheorganizationinalloftheothertasksofstrategicmanagement.Forexample,anorganization’smanagersshouldformulatestrategiesbasedonorganizationalstrengthsandweaknessesandinthecontextoftheopportunitiesandthreatsfoundinitsenvironment.Inaddition,strategicdirectionisanoutcomeofmeldingthedesiresofkeyorganizationalstakeholderswithenvironmentalrealities.BusinessSchoolofNankaiUniversityTextStrategicDirectionStrategicdirectionpertainstothelongertermgoalsandobjectivesoftheorganization.Atamorefundamentallevel,strategicdirectiondefinesthepurposesforwhichanorganizationexistsandoperates.Thisdirectionisoftencontainedinmissionandvisionstatements.Unlikeshortertermgoalsandstrategies,themissionsisanenduringpartofplanningprocesseswithintheorganization.Oftenmissionsalsodescribetheareasorindustriesinwhichanorganizationoperates.BusinessSchoolofNankaiUniversityTextAvisionstatementexpresseswhattheorganizationwantstobeinthefuture,whichmayinvolveafundamentalchangeinitsbusiness.Forexample,astart-upfirmmayhaveamissiontoprovidesoftwaredesignandsupportforitsclients,butitslong-rangevisionmaybetobecomeafullyintegratedInternetprovider.Althoughthemissiondirectsthebusinessfornow,themissionwillgraduallychangeastheorganizationmovesovertimetowardfulfillmentofitsvision.Awell-establishedstrategicdirectionprovidesguidancetothestakeholdersinsidetheorganizationwhoarelargelyresponsibleforcarryingitout.Awell-defineddirectionalsoprovidesexternalstakeholderswithagreaterunderstandingoftheorganizationanditsactivities.Thenextlogicalstepinthestrategicmanagementprocessisstrategyformulation.BusinessSchoolofNankaiUniversityTextStrategyFormulationAstrategycanbethoughtofintwoways:(1)asapatternthatemergesinasequenceofdecisionsovertimeand(2)asanorganizationalplanofactionthatisintendedtomoveanorganizationtowardtheachievementofitsfundamentalpurposes.Insomeorganizations,particularlysmallbusinessesandthoseexperiencingrapidlychangingenvironments,strategiesarenot"planned"intheformalsenseoftheword.Instead,managersseizeopportunitiesastheycomeup,butwithinguidelinesorboundariesdefinedbythefirm'sstrategicdirectionormission.Inthosecases,thestrategyreflectstheinsightandintuitionofthestrategistorbusinessownerandbecomesclearovertimeasapatterninastreamofdecisions.Strategiesas"plans"arecommoninmostorganizations,however.Strategyformulation—theprocessofplanningstrategies—isoftendividedintothreelevels:corporate,business,andfunctional.BusinessSchoolofNankaiUniversityTextCorporate-levelstrategyformulationrefersprimarilytodomaindefinition,ortheselectionofbusinessareasinwhichtheorganizationwillcompete.Althoughsomefirms,suchasMcDonald's,areinvolvedinonebasicbusiness,diversifiedorganizationsareinvolvedinseveraldifferentbusinessesandserveavarietyofcustomergroups.Business-levelstrategyformulation,ontheotherhand,pertainstodomaindirectionandnavigation,orhowbusinessescompeteintheareastheyhaveselected.Functional-levelstrategyformulationcontainsthedetailsofhowthefunctionalareassuchasmarketing,operations,finance,andresearchshouldworktogethertoachievethebusiness-levelstrategy.Thus,functional-levelstrategyismostcloselyassociatedwithstrategyimplementation,whichistreatedinChapter8.BusinessSchoolofNankaiUniversityTextAnotherwaytodistinguishamongthethreelevelsistodeterminethelevelatwhichdecisionsaremade.Corporate-leveldecisionsaretypicallymadeatthehighestlevelsoftheorganizationbythechiefexecutiveofficer(CEO)and/orboardofdirectors,althoughtheseindividualsmayreceiveinputfrommanagersatotherlevels.Ifanorganizationisonlyinvolvedinoneareaofbusiness,thenbusiness-leveldecisionstendtobemadebythesamepeople.However,inorganizationsthatdiversifiedintomanyareas,whicharerepresentedbydifferentoperatingdivisionsorlinesofbusiness,business-leveldecisionstendtobemadebythesamepeople.However,inorganizationsthathavediversifiedintomanyareas,whicharerepresentedbydifferentoperatingdivisionsorlinesofbusiness,business-leveldecisionsaremadebyfunctionalmanagers,whorepresentorganizationalareassuchasoperations,finance,personnel,accounting,researchanddevelopment,orinformationsystems.BusinessSchoolofNankaiUniversityTextStrategyImplementationandControlStrategyformulation,asdescribedinthelastsection,resultsinaplanofactionforhandtheorganizationanditsvariouslevels.Strategyimplementation,ontheotherhand,representsapatternofdecisionsandtheactionsneededtocarryouttheplan.Strategyimplementationinvolvescreatingthefunctionalstrategies,systems,structures,andprocessesneededbytheorganizationtoachievestrategicends.Functionalstrategiesoutlinethespecificactionsthateachfunctionmustundertaketoconvertbusiness-andcorporate-levelstrategiesintoactions.Organizationalsystemsaredevelopedtotrainandgather,analyze,andconveyinformation.Structuresreflectthewaypeopleandworkareorganized,whichincludesreportingrelationshipsandformationintoworkgroups,teams,anddepartments.Processes,suchasstandardoperatingprocedures,aredevelopedtocreateuniformityacrosstheorganizationandpromoteefficiency.BusinessSchoolofNankaiUniversityTextGoodcontrolisalsocriticaltoorganizationalsuccess.Strategiccontrolreferstotheprocessesthatleadtoadjustmentsinstrategicdirection,strategies,ortheimplementationplan,whennecessary.Thus,managersmaycollectinformationthatleadsthemtobelievethattheorganizationalmissionisnolongerappropriateorthatitsstrategiesarenotleadingtothedesiredoutcomes.Ontheotherhand,thestrategiccontrolsystemmaytellmanagersthatthemissionandstrategiesareappropriate,buttheyhavenotbeenwellexecuted.Insuchcases,adjustmentsshouldbemadetotheimplementationprocess.BusinessSchoolofNankaiUniversityTextStrategicRestructuringAtsomepointinthelifeofalmosteveryorganization,growthwillslowandsomestakeholderswillbegintofeeldissatisfied.Wal-Martisanexcellentexampleofthisphenomenon.Aftertwodecadesofincrediblegrowthinsales,earnings,andstockvalue,Wal-Marthasbeguntolevel-off.Infact,Wal-Martstockrecentlyhasbeenlistedasapoorinvestmentbysomemajorfinancialadvisors.SomeassetthatSamWalton’sdeathtriggeredthedecline.OthersarguethatWal-Martissufferingfrommarketsaturation.BusinessSchoolofNankaiUniversityTextRegardlessofthereason,manyorganizationseventuallyfeeltheneedtoreevaluate,inamajorway,theirstrategiesandhowtheyareexecutingthem.Restructuringtypicallyinvolvesarenewedemphasisonthethingsanorganizationdoeswell,combinedwithavarietyoftacticstorevitalizetheorganizationandstrengthenitscompetitiveposition.Currentpopularrestructuringtacticsincluderefocusingonamorelimitedsetofactivitiesbydivestingpartsofthebusinessretrenchment(scalingbackofgrowthefforts),ChapterXIreorganization,leveragedbuyouts,andchangestotheorganizationalstructure.BusinessSchoolofNankaiUniversityTextNowthatthestrategicmanagementprocesshasbeendescribedandtheoutlineofthebookpresented,wenextestablishafoundationonwhichtherestofthebookwillrest.Wefirstdescribethevarioustheoreticalperspectivesthatunderliethefieldofstrategicmanagement.Thenwebrieflyoutlinestakeholderanalysisandtheethicsassociatedwithworkingwithstakeholders.Finally,weturnoutattentiontothetrendsthatareacceleratingorganizationalmovementtowardaglobalplayingfield.BusinessSchoolofNankaiUniversityTextAlternativePerspectivesonStrategy