Chapter10RefutationandPointofInformation目錄CONTENT01Warm-Up02BurdenofRefutationandRejoinder03RefutationStrategies04PresentingtheRefutation05PointofInformation06ExercisesWarm-upBWhatisarejoinderandwhatisitsfunction?CWhatstrategiescanbeemployedtomakearefutation?DWhatarethepurposesofpointofinformation(POI)inadebate?EWhencanthedebatermakeaPOItothespeaker?AWhatarethepurposesandfunctionsofrefutation?BurdenofRefutationandRejoinder

Rejoinderisarefutationofarefutation.Eachdebater,afterthePMandLO,bearstheburdenofrejoinder,whichmeanstheresponsibilitytorespondtothechallengefromtheopponenttotheirpartner.Rejoinderadvancestheconceptofrefutationonestepfurtherasitrequiresdebaterstosynthesizetheirargumentsinasystematicway,alwaysreadytoanswernewchallengestoarguments.Rejoinder

First,refutationcanweaken,destroy,orevenoverthrowanargument;Second,refutationcanbeusedtorebuildanargument,thatis,torevalidateanargumentthathasbeenrefutedbyotherdebaters.RefutationRefutationStrategiesToulminModelofArgumentConstruction(revised)Claim:themainpointorfundamentalthesisoftheargumentEvidence:anymaterial(facts,dataorreasoning)usedtosupporttheclaimLink:thepartoftheargumentshowingtherelationshipbetweentheclaimandevidence.Itcanbebasedongeneralization,principle,sign,analogy,authority,orcausality.EvidenceClaimLinkMostfallaciesinargumentsoccurinassemblingevidence,orlinkingtheevidencetotheclaim.Aneffectivewaytorefuteanargumentistolocatetheproblemsinitsevidenceorlink.MisuseofEvidencemissingevidence01excludedevidence02beggingthequestion03strawman04redherring059hastygeneralization10accident6adhominenattack7appealtothepeople8argumentfromignoranceExamplesoffallaciesHetoldusthetruthbecausehewouldn’tlietous.Youdon’tknowanythingaboutthisfield,sowhyshouldanyonelistentoyou?Officer,Idon'tdeserveaticket;

everyonegoesthisspeed.

IfIwentanyslower,Iwouldn'tbegoingwiththestreamoftraffic.Christinehasaterribleexperiencewithaboyfriend.Shedecidesthatallboysaremean.Youvisitanewcountryandthefirstpersonyoumeetintheairportisrude.Yousendamessagetoafriendbackhomethateveryoneinthisnewcountryisrude.Youmaythinkthathecheatedonthetest,butlookatthepoorlittlething!Howwouldhefeelifyoumadehimsitit

again?Humanbeingshavetheabilitytohearsounds.Therefore,allpeoplearecapableofhearingsounds.Smokingcigarettescankillyoubecausecigarettesaredeadly.redherringaccident

beggingthequestionadhominemattackhastygeneralizationappealtothepeoplefalseanalogy01falsecause02posthocergopropterhoc03confusingcorrelationwithcause04singlecause05slipperyslope06FaultyLinksFalseanalogySinglecausePresentingtheRefutationThree-SteprefutationSteps1Identifyingtheargument2Critiquingtheargument3ExplainingthesignificanceoftherefutationclarityconsistencyCaseNo.1Motion:ThisHousewouldreformtheSecurityCouncil.Argument:

The

UN

Security

Council

veto

violates

the

democratic

principle

of

sovereign

equality

andperpetuatesdifferencesandanimosity.Moralityintheinternationalsystemisdefinedinlargepartbyequality.

However,

a

Permanent-5

country

typically

vetoes

a

resolution

in

the

UN

because

they

or

theirallieshaveastrongnationalorculturalinterestindoingso.Theseinterestsoftencontrastsharplywiththeinterestsofother

countries.Steps1IdentifyingtheargumentInthisargumentforreformingtheUNSecurityCouncil,ouropponentclaimsthattheSecurityCouncilvetoviolatesthedemocraticprincipleofsovereignequality.2CritiquingtheargumentI’mafraidthisclaimisflawed.OuropponentofferedamisinterpretationofthemissionoftheUnitedNations,andinparticulartheUNSecurityCouncil.TheUNCharterdoesnotexplicitlyoffersovereignequalityasarightintheinternationalsystem.Rather,internationalsecurityandequalityofsecurityistheprimaryobjective.AndtheUNSecurityCouncilvetopowerisameanstomaintainthegreatestlevelofinternationalsecurity.3ExplainingthesignificanceSincetheinterpretationofferedbyouropponentiswrong,theirclaimisquestionable.ThereexistsnogroundforreformingtheSecurityCouncil.CaseNo.2Motion:ThisHousewouldbancosmeticsurgery.Argument:

Womeninbeautycontestsarejudgedontheirphysicalappearanceratherthanonanyotherqualitytheymaypossess.Judgingwomenprimarilyontheirlookscontributestothesubjugationofwomenbecauseotherqualities,suchasintelligence,arenotseenaspartofidealfemininityandthereforenotasthingstowhichwomenshouldaspire.Steps1IdentifyingtheargumentIntheargumentforbanningbeautycontests,ouropponentclaimsthatwomeninbeautycontestsarejudgedonlyontheirappearanceratherthananyotherquality.2CritiquingtheargumentButinfact,thereisnothingwrongwithjudgingpeopleprimarilyontheirphysicalqualities.Peopledothisallthetimeincompetitivesports.Everycompetitionvaluescertainqualitiesoverothers.Werecognizethatbeingabletoliftheavyweightsisn’ttheprimedefinitionofhumanworth,butwecanstillgiveprizeforweightlifting.Similarly,wecangiveaprizetoabeautifulwomanforherbeautywithoutimplyingthatbeautyisallthatmattersaboutanyone.3ExplainingthesignificanceSincetheargumentofferedbyouropponentiswrong,theirclaimisquestionable.Thereexistsnogroundforbanningbeautycontests.PointofInformationGuidelinesDefinitionThedebatershouldgetthespeaker'sattentionpolitelyandcourteously.Thedebatershouldwaittoberecognizedbythespeaker.

Abriefstatementorquestionofferedbyadebatertoapointthenbeingmadebyaspeakeroftheoppositesidewhoisholdingthefloor.ThedebateroffersaPointofInformationinordertoletthespeakerclarifywhatheorshesays.ByofferingaPOI,thedebaterwillgetanopportunitytorefutethespeakerdirectly.Thedebatercan“telegraph”hisownstancetotheaudienceorjudgewhenhewantstomakeanargument.OfferingaPOIinvolvestheopportunitytoestablishorreestablishthedirectionofthedebate.PurposesExercisesExercise1:

Identifyingproblematicarguments(1)Readthefollowingargumentswithlogicalfallaciesinvolvingevidenceorlink/warrant.Identifythefallacy,discusswithyourpartnerandpresentyourdiscussionstotheclass.AnswersforExercise1(1)missing

evidencestraw

manAdhominem

attackbeggingthe

questionslippery

slopehasty

generalizationred

herringfalse

analogyfalse

analogymissing

evidenceposthocergopropterhocslipperyslopeconfusingcorrelationwithcauseposthocergopropterhocaccidentExercise1:

Identifyingproblematicarguments(2)LookthroughsomepopularadvertisementsonTVorinthenewspapersandfind6examplesofunsoundreasoning.Exercise2:

PresentingarefutationRefutetheargumentsbelowbyfollowingthethreestepsofpresentingarefutationofferedinthetext,namely,identifyingtheargument,critiquingtheargument,andexplainingthesignificanceoftherefutation.Onehintatapossiblerefutationisgivenaftereachargumentforyourreferenceinstructuringtherefutation.Ofcourse,otherrefutationargumentsareencouraged.Identifyingtheargument:______________________________________Critiquingtheargument:______________________________________Explainingthesignificanceoftherefutation:______________________________________Argument1:Argument:Womeninbeautycontestsarejudgedontheirphysicalappearanceratherthanonanyotherqualitiestheymaypossess.Judgingwomenprimarilyontheirlookscontributestothesubjugationofwomenbecauseotherqualities,suchasintelligence,arenotseenaspartofidealfemininityandthereforenotasthingstowhichwomenshouldaspire.Hint:Thereisnothingwrongwithjudgingpeopleprimarilyontheirphysicalprowess,whichisamajordeterminantofsuccessincompetitivesport.PleaserefertoCaseNo.1in“PresentingtheRefutation.”Identifyingtheargument:______________________________________Critiquingtheargument:______________________________________Explainingthesignificanceoftherefutation:______________________________________Argument2:Argument:Euthanasiahelpsfamiliesthatdon’twanttoseetheirlovedonessuffer.Euthanasiaisanimmediateandpainlesswaytoendalifethatistoopainful.Itprovidesanoptiontoendalifebeforeitevenenterstheterminal“deathbed”stageofsuffering,orallowsfamiliestochoosetoenda“deathbed”existencewithdignityandpeace.Hint:Paincannotjustifyeuthanasia,whichcanbemadetolerablewithmodernmedicines.Identifyingtheargument:Inarguingforthelegalizationofeuthanasia,ouropponentclaimsthateuthanasiaisan

immediateandpainlesswaytoendalifethatistoopainful.Critiquingtheargument:I’mafraidthisclaimisflawed.Paindoesnotjustifyeuthanasia,andmodernmedicine

canmakepaintolerableandhelppreservethequalityoflifeasfaraspossible.Thereis

noneedforterminallyillpatientsevertobeinexcruciatingpain,evenattheveryendof

thecourseoftheirillness.Explainingthesignificanceoftherefutation:Sincetheargumentofferedbyouropponentiswrong,theirclaimisquestionable.There

existsnogroundforlegalizingeuthanasia.Identifyingtheargument:______________________________________Critiquingtheargument:______________________________________Explainingthesignificanceoftherefutation:______________________________________Argument3:Argument:Standardizedtestsaregenerallygoodatmeasuringstudents’knowledge,skills,andunderstandingbecausetheyareobjective,fair,efficient,andcomprehensive.Forthesereasons,theyareusedfordecisionsaboutadmissiontocolleges,graduateprograms,andprofessionalschoolsaswellasqualificationandlicensingformanyskilledoccupationsanddemandingprofessionssuchaslawandmedicine.Hint:Scoresofstandardizedtestsarenotthesameasstudentachievement.Identifyingtheargument:In

their

argument

for

standardized

tests,

our

opponent

claims

that

standardized

tests

are

good

at

measuring

students’

knowledge,

skills,

and

understanding.Critiquingtheargument:Butthisclaimisproblematicinthatitequatesstudents’performanceinstandardized

testswiththeirachievement.Infact,standardtestsdoapoorjobofmeasuringstudent

achievement.Thescoresdon’tprovideverymuchusefulinformationforevaluatinga

student’sachievement,ateacher’scompetency,orthesuccessofaparticularschool

orprogram.Additionally,becauseofthesmallsampleofknowledgethatistested,

standardizedtestsprovideaveryincompletepictureofstudentachievement.Theyfail

tomeasuresuchimportantattributesascreativityandcriticalthinking

skills.

Explainingthesignificanceoftherefutation:Sincetheargumentofferedbyouropponentiswrong,theirclaimisquestionable.

Thereexistsnogroundforbelievingthatstandardizedtestseffectivelymeasurestudent

achievement.Readthefollowingmotiononguncontrol.Thefirstroundofargument-refutation-rejoinderisgivenasareference.Developyourownrefutationsandrejoinderstotheotherargumentslistedbelow.

Exercise3

RefutingrefutationsMotion:ThisHousecallsforstrongerguncontrollaws.Argument1:Strongerguncontrollawswouldsavelives.Themorepeoplewhocarryweapons,themorelikelyitisthatsomeonewilluseonetokill.Statisticsshowsthatincreasedgunownershipleadstohigherlevelsofcrime,

suicide

andothernegativeoutcomes.Refutation1:Gunscanmakesocietysaferbygivingpeoplethepowerofself-defense.Awell-armedcitizenrypreventscrimeandthatstrongerguncontrollawswouldincreasethecrimeratebymakinglaw-abidingcitizensvulnerabletothosewhochoosetodisregardthelaw.Rejoinder1:Thereisafundamentaldifferencebetweengunsandotherweapons,forinstance,knives,intermsofthemortalityoftheharmtheyinflict.Gunscausemoreirrevocableharmsanddeaththanotherweapons.Motion:ThisHousecallsforstrongerguncontrollaws.Argument2:Gunrightisananachronism.ThefactthatgunrightwassanctifiedintheU.S.ConstitutionshouldbesituatedintheveryspecificcontextoftheAmericanWarofIndependenceinwhichthemilitiaarmedwithgunsplayedanessentialrole.Butthesituationhaschanged.NowtheUnitedStateshasthemostpowerfulmilitaryintheworld.Thereisnoneedforordinarycitizenstopossessgunstoprotectthestate.Refutation2:_____________________________________________________________________Rejoinder2:_________________________________________________________________________Refutation2:OuropponenthasaflawedunderstandingofthesanctityofgunsinAmerica.Privately

heldgunsnotonlyhelpedthecolonistsriseupagainsttheBritish,theyarealso

necessaryfortheprotectionofourlibertiesbymakinggovernmenttyrannylesslikely.

Gunrightisnotananachronism.Itisanessentialrightinensuringfreedomand

democracyforthiscountry.Rejoinder2:Thekeytoprotectingourlibertiesandourde