14MotivationinMultinationalCompaniesLearningObjectives(1of2)Recognizehowpeoplefromdifferentnationsperceivethebasicfunctionsofworking.Explainhowpeoplefromdifferentnationsviewtheimportanceofworking.Understandhowthenationalcontextaffectsthebasicprocessesofworkmotivation.LearningObjectives(2of2)Applycommontheoriesofworkmotivationindifferentnationalcontexts.Designjobsforhighmotivationalpotentialindifferentnationalcultures.WorkValuesand

theMeaningofWorkBeforewecanunderstandhowtomotivateorleadpeoplefromdifferentnationalcultures,wemusthavesomeknowledgeaboutwhatworkmeanstopeoplefromdifferentsocieties.Twobasicquestionsmustbeanswered:Howimportantisworkinpeople’slives?Whatdopeoplevalueinwork?HowImportantisWork

inPeople’sLives?(1of2)WorkCentrality

isthedegreeofimportancethatworkhasinthelifeofanindividualatagiventime,ascomparedtootheractivitiessuchasleisureandfamily.Higherlevelsofworkcentralityarecloselycorrelatedwiththeaveragenumberofhoursworkedperweek.Highlevelsofworkcentralitymayleadtodedicatedworkersandeffectiveorganizations.HowImportantisWork

inPeople’sLives?(2of2)WorkObligationNorms

arethedegreetowhichworkisseenasanobligationordutyinasociety.Thesesocietiesaremorelikelytohaveindividualsadheringtothisnormbyworkinglonger.Manyoftheemergingeconomiesshowveryhighlevelsofworkobligationnorms.Exhibit14.1:

LevelsofWorkObligationNormsinVariousSocietiesWhatDoPeopleValue

inWork?(1of3)Twoimportantworkvaluesare:PeoplewithExtrinsicWorkValuesexpressapreferenceforthesecurityaspectofjobssuchasincome,jobsecurity,andlessdemandingwork.ThosewithIntrinsicWorkValuesexpresspreferencesforopennesstochange,thepursuitofautonomy,growth,creativity,andtheuseofinitiativeatwork.Exhibit14.2:

Preference:ExtrinsicWorkValuesExhibit14.3:

Preference:IntrinsicWorkValuesExhibit14.4:

ImportanceRankingsofWorkCharacteristicsinNineCountriesWhatDoPeopleValue

inWork?(2of3)Insomesocieties,workisverycentralandabsorbsmuchofaperson’slife.Allpeoplehopetoreceivecertainbenefitsfromwork.Societiesdifferinthedegreetowhichtheyregardworkasanobligationtosociety.Manyoftheemergingeconomiesthatvalueextrinsicworkvaluessuchasincomeandjobsecurityalsoplacehighvalueonintrinsicworkvalues.WhatDoPeopleValue

inWork?(3of3)Thefirstkeytosuccessfulmotivationalstrategiesinmultinationalcompaniesisunderstandingthedifferencesregardinghowpeopleviewthefunctionsofwork,workcentrality,andtheprioritiesgiventodifferentjobcharacteristics.TheBasic

Work-MotivationProcess(1of2)Motivationisapsychologicalprocessresultingingoal-directedbehaviorthatsatisfieshumanneedsANeed

isafeelingofdeficitorlackingthatallpeopleexperienceatsometime.AGoal-directedBehavior

isonethatpeopleusewiththeintentionofsatisfyinganeed.TheBasic

Work-MotivationProcess(2of2)Reinforcementmeansthattheconsequencesthatfollowaperson’sbehaviorencouragethepersontocontinuethebehavior.Example:bonuspaytoencouragebehaviorPunishmentmeansthattheconsequencesthatfollowaperson’sbehaviordiscouragethebehavior.Example:dockingpaytodiscouragebehaviorExhibit14.5:

TheBasicWorkMotivationProcessandtheNationalContextNationalContext

andWorkMotivationCulturalvalues,norms&supportingsocialinstitutionsinfluencetheprioritythatpeopleattachtowork.Example:Earlyeducationincollectivistsocietiesencouragepeopletodevelopaneedtobelongtogroups.Thenationalcontextinfluencesreactionstogoal-directedbehaviorsatwork.Example:AJapaneseworkerwhobragsabouthisperformancewillbesanctionedbyhisworkgroup.TheoriesofWorkMotivation

intheMultinationalContext

(1of2)Managerscanusework-motivationtheoriestodevelopsystematicapproachestomotivatingemployees.Therearetwobasictypesofmotivationaltheories:TheNeedTheoryassumesthatpeoplearemotivatedtoworkbecausetheirjobssatisfybasicneedsandhigher-levelneeds.TheProcessTheoryassumesthatmotivationarisesfromneedsandvaluescombinedwithanindividual’sbeliefsregardingtheworkenvironment.TheoriesofWorkMotivation

intheMultinationalContext

(2of2)TheNeedTheoriesofmotivationhavethemostinternationalapplication.Therearefourneedtheoriesofmotivation:Maslow’sHierarchyofNeedsERGtheoryMotivator-hygienetheoryAchievementmotivationtheoryExhibit14.6:

NeedTheoriesofMotivationMaslow’sHierarchyofNeeds(1of2)Maslowofferedthemostfamousneedtheory,rankingfivebasictypesofneeds(lowesttohighest):Physiological(food,water,basicsurvival)Security(safety,avoidanceofthreats)Affiliation(beingloved,havingfriends,groups)Esteem(respect,recognitionbyothers,self-worth)Self-actualization(maximizepersonalachievement)Maslow’sHierarchyofNeeds(2of2)Peoplefirstseektosatisfylowerneeds,thenhigherones.Oncealowerneedissatisfied,itnolongermotivates.Example:Ifyourbasepayisadequateforsurvival,itnolongerhasmotivationalvalue.Thenothercharacteristicsoftheworksituationbecomemotivational,suchasworkinginteamstomeetaffiliationneeds.Alderfer’sERGTheoryAlderfer’ssimplifiedhierarchyofthreeneedsincludesexistenceneeds,relatednessneeds,&growthneeds.InERGtheory,frustrationofaneedmotivatesbehaviortosatisfytheneed.Apersonwhocannotsatisfyahigherneedwillseektosatisfylower-levelneeds.Example:Ifthesatisfactionofgrowthneedsisimpossibleonthejob,relationalneedsbecometheprimemotivator.Motivator-HygieneTheoryTheMotivator-HygieneTheoryassumesthatajobhastwocharacteristics:motivatorsandhygienefactors.MotivatingFactorsarethecharacteristicsofjobsthatallowpeopletofulfillhigher-levelneeds.Example:achallengingjobforachievementHygieneFactorsarecharacteristicsofjobsthatallowpeopletofulfilllower-levelneeds.Example:goodbenefitsandworkingconditionsthatsatisfysecurityneeds.Achievement-MotivationTheoryAchievement-MotivationTheorysuggeststhatonlysomepeople(10%inU.S.)havetheneedtowinincompetitivesituationsortoexceedastandardofexcellence.Highachievement-motivatedpeoplesettheirowngoalsandseekchallengingsituations,butavoidthosethataretoodifficult.Highachieversdesireimmediatefeedbacksothattheyknowhowtheyareperformingateachstep.NeedsandtheNationalContextWorkrelatedneedsmaybe“grouped”inwaysthatmatchbroadgroupsproposedbyNeedtheories.Peoplefromdifferentnationsdonotgivethesameprioritiestotheneedsthatmightbesatisfiedatwork.Evenwithsimilarneeds,theymaynotgivethesamelevelofimportanceofsatisfyingtheseneeds.Multinationalmanagerscanuseneedsatisfactionasamotivationaltooliftheytakeintoaccounttheparticularneedsthatpeopleinthatnationseek.Exhibit14.7:RankingsoftheImportanceofJob-RelatedSourcesofNeedSatisfactionforSevenCountriesExhibit14.8:

Hofstede’sDimensionsofNationalCultureandMotivatorsatWorkApplyingNeedTheoriesinMultinationalSettingsIdentifythebasicfunctionsofworkinthenationalorlocalculture.Identifytheneedsconsideredmostimportantbyworkersinthenationalorlocalculture.Notethatsourcesofneedfulfillmentmaydifferforthesameneeds.Understandthelimitationsofavailablejobstosatisfyneeds.ProcessandReinforcementTheoriesofMotivation:ExpectancyTheoryExpectancyTheoryisaviewofmotivationthatismorecomplexthansimpleneedsatisfaction:Workmotivationisafunctionnotonlyofaperson’sneedsorvalues,butalsooftheperson’sbeliefsregardingwhathappensifyouworkhard.Motivationincludesaperson’sdesiretosatisfyneeds,butthelevelofmotivationalsodependsontheperson’sbeliefregardinghowmuch-orif-hiseffortswilleventuallysatisfyhisneeds.ExpectancyTheoryEquationThreefactorsmakeupExpectancyTheory:Expectancy:anindividual’sbeliefthathisorhereffortwillleadtosomeresultValence:thevalueattachedtotheoutcomeofeffortsInstrumentality:thelinksbetweenearlyandlaterresultsoftheworkeffortMotivation=ExpectancyxValencexInstrumentalityApplyingExpectancyTheoryinMultinationalSettingsTherearetwokeyissues:Identifywhichoutcomespeoplevalueinaparticularnationalorculturalsetting;themultinationalmanagermustfindanduserewardswithpositivevalanceforemployees.Findculturallyappropriatewaystoconvinceemployeesthattheireffortswillleadtodesirableends.EquityTheoryEquityTheoryfocusesonthefairnessthatpeopleperceiveintherewardsthattheyreceivefortheireffortsatwork.Peoplehavenoabsolutestandardsforfairnessregardingtheirefforts,butalsocomparethemselvestoothers.Example:Iftwopeoplehavethesamejobandexperience,butnotthesamepay,oneisinoverpaymentequity,andtheotherinunderpayment.ApplyingEquityTheoryinMultinationalSettingsThreeprinciplesofallocatingrewards,dependingonculturalsettings:EquitynormsprevailinindividualisticculturesEqualitynormsprevailoverequitynormsincollectivistcultures.Theprincipleofneedmayprevailoverequityincertainconditions.Exhibit14.9:

RewardsfromPeersforContributionstoaStudentGroupProjectGoalSettingTheoryGoal-SettingTheoryassumesthatpeoplewanttoachievegoals;theexistenceofagoalismotivating.Tomotivate,followtheprinciplesofgoalsetting:Setclearandspecificgoals.Assigndifficultbutachievablegoals.Increaseemployeeacceptanceofgoals.Provideincentivestoachievegoals.Givefeedbackongoalattainment.ApplyingGoal-SettingTheoryinMultinationalSettingsGoal-Settingworkstosomedegree,anywhere.Culturalexpectationsvaryrewhosetsgoals,anditisbettertosetgoalsforgroupsorindividuals.Inindividualisticcultures,settingindividualgoalsmaybemoreeffectivethangroupgoals.Incollectivistcultures,workerswillwanttoparticipateingoal-setting;participationmayhaveagreaterchanceofenhancingworkers’commitmenttothegoal.Exhibit14.10:

CulturalEffectsonPerformancebytheDegreeofParticipationinGoalSettingReinforcementTheoryReinforcementTheoryfocusesonoperantconditioning,amodelwhichproposesthatbehaviorisafunctionofitsconsequences.Ifapleasurableconsequencefollowscertainbehavior,thebehaviorcontinues.(positivereinforcement)Ifanegativeconsequencefollowscertainbehavior,thebehaviorstops.(negativereinforcement)Exhibit14.11:

ExamplesofOperant-ConditioningProcessandTypesofConsequencesApplyingReinforcementTheory

inMultinationalSettingsForobservablebehaviors,mostU.S.studiessuggestthatpositivereinforcementworks.Thedifficultyisinidentifyingappropriaterewardsasreinforcerstoadiversegroup.Thenationalcontextdefinesacceptableandlegitimaterewards.Germany:payandbenefitsnotavailableasrewardsJapan:Publicpraisemaybeembarrassing.KeyPoints

inMultinationalApplicationsofProcess/ReinforcementTheoriesExpectancyTheory:Thekeyistoidentifynationallyappropriaterewardsthathavepositivevalence.EquityTheory:Assessthemeaningandprincipleofequityinthenationalcontext.Goal-settingTheory:Shouldgoalsbegroup/individual?Shouldworkers/leadersparticipateingoalsetting?ReinforcementTheory:Theinstitutionalenvironmentandwhatpeoplevaluewillaffectthetypesofavailablerewardsinasociety.MotivationandJobDesign:

AU.S.PerspectiveAU.S.approach:TheJob-CharacteristicsModelThemostpopularU.S.approachistheJobCharacteristicsModel:Workismoremotivatingwhenmanagersenrichcorejobcharacteristics,asbyincreasingnumberofskillsajobrequires.TheJob-CharacteristicsModelThreecriticalpsychologicalstatesaremotivating:Apersonmustbelievethathisorherjobismeaningful.Apersonmustbelievethatheorsheisresponsibleoraccountablefortheoutcomeofwork.Apersonmustunderstandhowwellheorshehasperformed.CoreCharacteristicsofJob

Thecorejobcharacteristicsthatleadtomotivatingpsychologicalstatesare:SkillvarietyTaskidentityTasksignificanceAutonomyFeedbackExhibit14.12:

AMotivatingJobin

theJob-CharacteristicsModelMotivationandJobDesign:

AEuropeanPerspectiveTheSociotechnicalSystems(STS)approachattemptstomeshbothmoderntechnologyandthesocialneedsofworkers,butdoesnotconsiderthem