Chapter6PragmaticsSomebasicnotionsSpeechacttheory

Principleofconversation

Cross-culturalpragmaticfailureChapter6PragmaticsSomebasi1Whatispragmatics?Pragmaticsstudiesthemeaninginthecontextoflanguageuse.Whatispragmatics?Pragmatics2Theviewoftraditionalsemantics

Themeaningoflanguagewasconsideredassomethingintrinsic,andinherent,i.e.,apropertyattachedtolanguageitself.Therefore,meaningsofwords,meaningsofsentenceswereallstudiedinisolationfromlanguageuse.語言的意義被認為是內在的、固有的，即依附于語言自身的特征。因此，詞的意義和句子的意義都應該從語言運用中孤立出來加以研究。Theviewoftraditionalsemant3Pragmaticsvs.semanticsWhatessentiallydistinguishessemanticsandpragmaticsiswhetherinthestudyofmeaningthecontextofuseisconsidered.Ifitisnotconsidered,thestudyisconfinedtotheareaoftraditionalsemantics;ifitisconsidered,thestudyisbeingcarriedoutintheareaofpragmatics.Pragmaticsvs.semanticsWhate4Context

Itisgenerallyconsideredasconstitutedbytheknowledgesharedbythespeakerandthehearer.Contextdeterminesthespeaker’suseoflanguageandalsothehearer’sinterpretationofwhatissaidtohim.ContextItisgenerallyconsid5Sentencemeaningvs.utterancemeaning(句子意義與話語意義)Asentenceisagrammaticalconcept,andthemeaningofasentenceisabstractandisolatedfromcontext.Ifthesentenceisutteredinacertainsituationwithacertainpurpose,itbecomesanutterance.Themeaningofanutteranceisconcrete,andcontext-dependent.Sentencemeaningvs.utterance6TherelationshipbetweenthetwoThemeaningofanutteranceisbasedonsentencemeaning;itistherealizationoftheabstractmeaningofasentenceinarealsituationofcommunication,orsimplyinacontext.Therelationshipbetweenthet7Speechacttheory(言語行為理論)ItwasproposedbytheBritishphilosopherJohnAustin(約翰·奧斯汀)inthelate50’softhe20thcentury.Accordingtothespeechacttheory,weareperformingactionswhenwearespeaking.Accordingtohisnewmodel,aspeakmightbeperformingthreeactssimultaneouslywhenspeaking:locutionaryact,

illocutionaryact,andperlocutionaryact.Speechacttheory(言語行為理論)Itw8locutionaryact(言內行為):theactofutteringwords,phrases,clauses.(傳達字面意義)illocutionaryact(言外行為):theactofexpressingthespeaker’sintention.(表明說話意圖)perlocutionaryact(言后行為):theeffectoftheutterance.(話語產生的效果)locutionaryact(言內行為):theac9Searle’sclassificationofspeechacts(塞爾對言語行為的分類)JohnSearle:AmericanphilosopherlinguistOneofthecontributionsSearlehasmadeishisclassificationofillocutionaryacts.AccordingtoSearle,speechactsfallintofivegeneralcategories:Searle’sclassificationofspe10Fivegeneralcategories1.

representatives(闡述類):statingordescribing,sayingwhatthespeakerbelievestobetrue.Inotherwords,whenperforminganillocutionaryactofrepresentative,thespeakerismakingastatementorgivingadescriptionwhichhimselfbelievestobetrue,suchasstating,believing,swearing,hypothesizing.Examples:P83:(6-9)(6-10)Fivegeneralcategories1.

repr112.

directives(指令類):tryingtogetthehearertodosomething,suchasinviting,suggesting,requesting,advising,warning,threatening,ordering.Examples:Openthewindow!You’dbattergototheclinic.Yourmoneyoryourlife!Wouldyouliketogotothepicnicwithus?2.

directives(指令類):tryingto123.

commissives(承諾類):committingthespeakerhimselftosomefuturecourseofaction.(對未來的某個行為作出承諾)

Thatistosay,whenspeakingthespeakerputshimselfunderacertainobligation.Promising,undertaking,vowingarethemosttypicalcases.Examples:Ipromisetocome.Iwillbringyouthebooktomorrowwithoutfail.3.

commissives(承諾類):committi134.expressives(表達類):expressingfeelingsorattitudetowardsanexistingstate,e.g.apologizing,thanking,congratulating.Examples:I’msorryforthemessIhavemade.It’sreallykindofyoutohavethoughtofme.

4.expressives(表達類):expressi145.declarations(宣告類):bringingaboutimmediatechangesbysayingsomething.Examples:Inowdeclarethemeetingopen.Iappointyouchairmanofthecommittee.Ifireyou!5.declarations(宣告類):bringin15Indirectspeechacts(間接言語行為)ItwasproposedbyJohnSearle.AccordingtoSearle,whenaspeakerisusingindirectlanguage,heisperformingtwospeechactssimultaneously:primaryspeechact(首要言語行為)andsecondaryspeechact(次要言語行為).Theprimaryspeechactisthespeaker’sgoalofcommunicationwhilethesecondaryspeechactisthemeansbywhichheachieveshisgoal.Example:P85:(6-28)Indirectspeechacts(間接言語行為)I16Principleofconversation

(會話原則)PaulGrice(格賴斯),anAmericanphilosopherandlogician,holdsthatinmakingconversation,theparticipantsmustfirstofallbewillingtocooperate;otherwise,itwouldnotbepossibleforthemtocarryonthetalk.Twokindsofimpliedmeaningorimplicature:conventionalimplicature(規約含意)andnon-conventionalimplicature(非規約含意).particularizedconversationalimplicature(特殊會話含意)---shouldbeinferredbythehearerwithreferencetothecontextofcommunication.Principleofconversation(會話原17CooperatePrinciple(CP)合作原則GeneralPrinciple:P87

Makeyourconversationalcontributionsuchasrequiredatthestageatwhichitoccursbytheacceptedpurposeordirectionofthetalkexchangeinwhichyouareengaged.

在參與交談時，要使你說的話符合你所參與的交談的公認的目的或方向。CooperatePrinciple(CP)合作原則G18FourmaximsofCP:Themaximofquantity(數量準則)Themaximofquality(質量準則)Themaximofrelation(關系準則)Themaximofmanner(方式準則)

FourmaximsofCP:Themaximof19Themaximofquantity(數量準則)Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasrequired(forthecurrentpurposeoftheexchange)

你所說的話應包含(當前交談意圖)所需要的信息Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired.

所說的話不應包含超出需要的信息Themaximofquantity(數量準則)Ma20Themaximofquality(質量準則)Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse.不要說自知是假的話Donorsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence.

不要說缺乏根據的話Themaximofquality(質量準則)Do21Themaximofrelation(關系準則)Berelevant.要有關聯性Themaximofrelation(關系準則)Be22Themaximofmanner(方式準則)Avoidobscurityofexpression.避免表達晦澀Avoidambiguity.避免歧義Bebrief(avoidunnecessaryprolixity).

要簡練(避免不必要的冗繁)Beorderly.要條理清晰Themaximofmanner(方式準則)Avoi23Conversationalimplicature(會話含意)Conversationalimplicatureoccursonlywhenthemaximsare“flouted”.

Floutingamaximmeansviolatingitblatantly,i.e.boththespeakerandthehearerareawareoftheviolation.

Examples:P88.Conversationalimplicature(會話24Cross-culturalpragmaticfailure

(跨文化語用失誤)Pragmaticfailurereferstocommunicationbreakdownresultingfrombeingunabletoreallyunderstandeachother.Pragmaticfailuresoccurswhenthespeakerfailstouselanguageeffectivelytoachieveaspecificcommuni