Contents

Summary1

Summary2

Sentencecompletion

Shortanswer

Table

Diagram

Flowchart

Note

Identifyingwriter’sview

Multiplechoice1

Multiplechoice2

Matchingheadings

Matchingfeatures

Matchingsentenceendings

Matchinginformation

5 ·

Session1:Summary1

TPO小站

雅思1對1

QuestionType1:Summarywithoutabox

QuestionFormat

QuestionSpecifications

Completethesummarybelow.ChooseONEWORDONLYfromthepassageforeachanswer.

Writeyouranswersinboxes24-26onyouranswersheet.

Beforesolvingthesummaryquestions,youshouldreadtherequirementsofthequestionscarefully,especiallytheboldpart.

Payattentionthetitleofthesummarywhichwillhelpyoualotwhenyoulocatethesummaryinthereadingpassage.

5

·

Summarywithoutabox:Action n

Step1

Usetheprompt,titleandtrackingcluestolocate.

運(yùn)用題中的提示詞、標(biāo)題及定位詞來搜尋題目在文章中的大致位置。

Identifythe

Step2

gr rfeaturesofeachgap.

確認(rèn)空格處所填內(nèi)容的語法現(xiàn)象，例如詞性、時(shí)態(tài)及單復(fù)數(shù)等。

Choosesuitablewordsfromthepassage.

Step3

從文中選擇符合字?jǐn)?shù)限制及語法要求的單詞或詞組，并保持句意通順。

40 ·

Session1:Summary1

TPO小站

雅思1對1

Summarywithoutabox:Sampledemonstration

Questions28-34

Completethesummary.

ChooseNOMORETHANTWOWORDSfromthepassageforeachanswer.

Cambridge5,Test2,Passage3

InEurope,modernscienceemergedatthesametimeasthenationstate.Atfirst,thescientificlanguageofchoiceremained28 .Itallowedscientiststocommunicatewithothersociallyprivilegedthinkerswhileprotectingtheirworkfromunwantedexploitation.Sometimesthedesiretoprotectideasseemstohavebeenstrongerthanthedesiretocommunicatethem,particularlyinthecaseofmathematiciansand

29 .InBritain,moreover,scientistworriedthatEnglishhad

neitherthe30 northe31 toexpresstheirideas.

Thissituationonlychangedafter1660whenscientistsassociatedwith

the32 setaboutdevelo English.Anearlyscientific

journalfosteredanewkindofwritingbasedonshortdescriptionsofspecificexperiments.AlthoughEnglishwasthenovertakenby

33 itdevelopedagaininthe19thcenturyasadirectresultofthe34 .

10 ·

Summarywithoutabox:Sampledemonstration

TheBirthofScientificEnglish

Para.

1

WorldsciencandFrench,isnotjustberesearch;ththeirresearcofscientificinEnglishbeEuropeanin

eisdominatedtodaybyasmallnumberoflanguages,includingJapanese,GermanbutitisEnglishwhichisprobablythemostpopulargloballanguageofscience.ThiscauseoftheimportanceofEnglish-speakingcountriessuchastheUSAinscientificescientistsofmanynon-English-speakingcountriesfindthattheyneedtowrite

hpapersinEnglishtoreachawideinternationalaudience.GiventheprominenceEnglishtoday,itmayseemsurprisingthatnoonereallyknewhowtowritescienceforethe17thcentury.Beforethat,Latinwasregardedasthe“l(fā)inguafranca”forlectuals.

Para.

2

TheEuropeanRenaissance(c.14th-I6thcentury)issometimescalledthe‘revivaloflearning’,atimeofrenewedinterestinthe‘lostknowledge’ofclassicaltimes.Atthesametime,however,scholarsalsobegantofestandextendthisknowledge.TheemergentnationstatesofEuropedevelopedcompetitiveinterestsinworldexplorationandthedevelopmentoftrade.Suchexpansion,whichwastotaketheEnglishlanguagewesttoAmericaandeasttoIndio,wassupportedbyscientificdevelopmentssuchasthediscoveryofmagnetism(andhencetheinventionofthecompass),improvementsincartographyand-perhapsthemostimportantscientificrevolutionofthemall—thenewtheoriesofastronomyandthemovementoftheEarthinrelationtothenetsandstars,developedbyCopernicus(1473-1543).

10 ·

Summarywithoutabox:Sampledemonstration

TheBirthofScientificEnglish

Para.

3

EnglandwasoneofthefirstcountrieswherescientistsadoptedandpublicisedCopernicanideaswithenthusiasm.Someofthesescholars,includingtwowithinterestsinlanguage—JohnWallisandJohnWilkins—helpedfoundtheRoyalSocietyin1660inordertopromoteempiricalscientificresearch.

Para.

4

AcrossEuropesimilaracademiesandsocietiesarose,creatingnewnationaltraditionsofscience.Intheinitialstagesofthescientificrevolution,mostpublicationsinthenationallanguageswerepopularworks,encyclopaedias,educationaltextbooksandtranslations.OriginalsciencewasnotdoneinEnglishuntilthesecondhalfofthe17thcentury.Forexample,Newtonpublishedhismathematicaltreatise,knownasthePrincipia,inLatin,butpublishedhislaterworkonthepropertiesoflight—Opticks—inEnglish.

Para.

5

Therewereseveralreasonswhyoriginalsciencesimplyamatterofaudience.LatinwassuitablefowhereasEnglishreachedasociallywider,butmowritteninEnglish.

tobewritteninLatin.Thefirstwasnationalaudienceofscholars,udience.Hence,popularsciencewas

raninter

relocal,a

10 ·

Summarywithoutabox:Sampledemonstration

TheBirthofScientificEnglish

Para.

6

AsecondreasonforwritinginLatinmay,perversepublicationhaddangersinputtingintothepublicbeenfullyexploitedbytheir‘a(chǎn)uthor’.Thisgrowingwasafeatureoftheperiod—itreflectedboththescientistwhoinventsanddiscoversthroughprivateconnectionbetweenoriginalscienceandcommercsocialdistinctionbetween‘scholarsandgentlemenwholackedaclassicaleducation.Andinthemid-1mathematicianstokeeptheirdiscoveriesandprooobscurelanguages,orinprivatemessagesdepositeSomescientistsmighthavefeltmorecomfortablethoughinternational,wassociallyrestricted.Docto‘insiderlanguage’.

ly,havebeenaconcernforsecrecy.Openpreliminaryideaswhichhadnotyet

concernaboutin lectualpropertyrightshumanistnotionoftheindividual,rationalin lectuallabour,andthegrowing

ialexploitation.Therewassomethingofa’whounderstoodLatin,andmenoftrade7fhcenturyifwascommonpracticefor

fssecret,bywritingthemincipher,in

dinasealedboxwiththeRoyalSociety.withLatinpreciselybecauseitsaudience,rsclungthemostkeenlytoLatinasan

10 ·

Summarywithoutabox:Sampledemonstration

TheBirthofScientificEnglish

Para.

AthirdreasonwhythewritingoforiginalscienceinEnglishwasdelayedmayhavebeentodowiththelinguisticinadequacyofEnglishintheearlymodernperiod.Englishwasnotwellequippedtodealwithscientificargument.First,itlackedthenecessarytechnicalvocabulary.

7 Second,itlackedthegr

ticalresourcesrequiredtorepresenttheworldinanobjective

andim alway,andtodiscusstherelations,suchascauseandeffect,thatmighthold

betweencomplexandhypotheticalentities.

Fortuna y,severalmembersoftheRoyalSocietypossessedaninterestinlanguageand

Para.

8

becameengagedinvariouslinguisticprojects.Althoughaproposalin1664toestablishacommitteeforimprovingtheEnglishlanguagecametolittle,thesociety’smembersdidagreatdealtofosterthepublicationofscienceinEnglishandtoencouragethedevelopmentofasuitablewritingstyle.ManymembersoftheRoyalSocietyalsopublishedmonographsinEnglish.OneofthefirstwasbyRobertHooke,thesociety'sfirstcuratorofexperiments,whodescribedhisexperimentswithmicroscopesinMicrographia(1665).Thisworkislargelynarrativeinstyle,basedonatranscriptoforaldemonstrationsandlectures.

10 ·

Summarywithoutabox:Sampledemonstration

TheBirthofScientificEnglish

Para.

9

In1665anewscientificjournal,PhilosophicalTransactions,wasinaugurated.PerhapsthefirstinternationalEnglish-languagescientificjournal,itencouragedanewgenreofscientificwriting,thatofshort,focusedaccountsofparticularexperiments.

Para.

10

The17thcenturywasthusaformativeperiodintheestablishmentofscientificEnglish.InthefollowingcenturymuchofthismomentumwaslostasGermanestablisheditselfastheleadingEuropeanlanguageofscience.Ifisestimatedthatbytheendofthe18thcentury401Germanscientificjournalshadbeenestablishedasopposedto96inFranceand50inEngland.However,inthe19fhcenturyscientificEnglishagainenjoyedsubstantiallexicalgrowthastheindustrialrevolutioncreatedtheneedfornewtechnicalvocabulary,andnew,specialised,professionalsocietieswereinstitutedtopromoteandpublishinthenewdisciplines.

10 ·

Summarywithoutabox:Sampledemonstration

Action n–Step1

Markthetrackingclues

這篇summary既無標(biāo)題，也無提示，所以只有通過尋找定位詞和段落結(jié)構(gòu)來解決定位問題。

定位詞分成三類：與數(shù)字替換的詞或詞組；邏輯關(guān)聯(lián)詞；名詞

InEurope,modernscienceemergedatthesametimeasthenationstate.Atfirst,thescientificlanguageofchoiceremained28 .Itallowedscientiststocommunicatewithothersociallyprivilegedthinkerswhileprotectingtheirworkfromunwantedexploitation.Sometimesthedesiretoprotectideasseemstohavebeenstrongerthanthedesiretocommunicatethem,particularlyinthecaseofmathematiciansand29 .InBritain,moreover,scientistworriedthatEnglishhadneitherthe30 northe31 toexpresstheirideas.Thissituationonlychangedafter1660whenscientistsassociatedwiththe32

setaboutdevelo English.Anearlyscientificjournalfosteredanewkindofwritingbasedon

shortdescriptionsofspecificexperiments.AlthoughEnglishwasthenovertakenby33

itdevelopedagaininthe19thcenturyasadirectresultofthe34 .

30 ·

Summarywithoutabox:Sampledemonstration

Action

n–Step2

Identifythegrrfeaturesofeachgap

確定空格處填進(jìn)去單詞的詞性、時(shí)態(tài)、單復(fù)數(shù)。

通過上下文確定單詞的大致含義。

注意邏輯關(guān)聯(lián)詞，例如and前后的單詞要保持意群一致。

n./adj.

n.

30-31 n.

n.

n.

n.

應(yīng)為某種語言

復(fù)數(shù)，專指有專業(yè)知識的人或者專業(yè)

名詞，并列

名詞，可能是一類人或?qū)I(yè)機(jī)構(gòu)

名詞，語言或國家

名詞

30 ·

Summarywithoutabox:Sampledemonstration

Action n–Step3

Choosesuitablewordsfromthepassage

從文章中選單詞，在選擇時(shí)注意時(shí)態(tài)和語義。

因?yàn)檫@道題最容易定位的是最后兩個(gè)空格，所以可以倒序來做題。

第一題相對比較難定位，可以最后一個(gè)完成。

第一段最后一句話

Answer:Latin(tips:Beforethat)

第六段最后一句話

Answer:doctors(tips:找尋和數(shù)學(xué)家一樣要保持

的人)

第七段

第七段

Answer:technicalvocabulary

(tips:并列加否定詞）

第八段第一句話

Answer:gr

ticalresources

(tips:并列加否定詞）

最后一段中間

Answer:RoyalSociety

(tips:必須是專業(yè) 和專業(yè)機(jī)構(gòu)）

最后一段最后一句話

Answer:German(tips: 英語地位的是德語）

Answer:industrialrevolution

(tips:asaresultof相當(dāng)于as）

30 ·

Summarywithoutabox:Skillpractice1

Cambridge6,Test1,Passage3

Questions33-40

CompletethesummaryofparagraphsCandDbelow.

ChooseNOMORETHANTWOWORDSfromparagraphsCandDforeachanswer.

IfyouvisittheCanadianArctic,youimmedia yappreciatetheproblemsfacedbypeopleforwhomthisishome.Itwouldclearlybeimpossibleforthepeopletoengagein33 asameansofsupportingthemselves.Forthousandsofyearstheyhavehadtorelyoncatching34

and35 asameansofsustenance.Theharshsurroundingssawmanywhotriedtosettletherepushedtotheirlimits,althoughsomeweresuccessful.The36 peoplewereanexampleofthelatterandforthemtheenvironmentdidnotproveunmanageable.Forthepresentinhabitants,lifecontinuestobea

struggle.TheterritoryofNunavutconsistsoflittlemorethanice,rockand

Testtips afew37 .Inrecentyears,manyofthemhavebeenobliged

Readtherequirementsof togiveuptheir38 lifestyle,buttheycontinuetodependthequestionscarefully. mainlyon39 fortheirfoodandclothes.40

Payattentionto produceisparticularlyexpensive.substitutionwhenyou

usethetrackingcluestolocate.

20 ·

Summarywithoutabox:Skillpractice1

ClimateChangeandtheInuit

ThethreatbyclimatechargeintheArcticandtheproblemsfacedbyCanada'sInuitpeople

TheCanadianArcticisavast,treelesspolardesertthat’scoveredwithsnowformostoftheyear.Ventureintothisterrainandyougetsomeideaofthehardshipsfacinganyonewhocallsthishome.Farmingisoutofthequestionandnatureoffersmeagrepickings.HumansfirstsettledintheArcticamere4,500yearsago,survivingbyexploitingseam lsandfish.Theenvironmenttestedthemtothelimits:sometimesthecolonistsweresuccessful,sometimestheyfailedandvanished.Butaroundathousandyearsago,onegroupemergedthatwasuniquelywelladaptedtocopewiththeArcticenvironment.TheseThulepeoplemovedinfromAlaska,bringingkayaks,sleds,dogs,potteryandirontools.Theyaretheancestorsoftoday’sInuitpeople.

LifeforthedescendantsoftheThulepeopleisstillharsh.Nunavutis19millionsquarekilometresofrockandice,andahandfulofislandsaroundtheNorthPole.It’scurrentlyhometo2,500people,allbutahandfulofthemindigenousInuit.Overthepast40years,mosthaveabandonedtheirnomadicwaysandsettledintheterritory’s28isolatedcommunities,buttheystillrelyheavilyonnaturetoprovidefoodandclothing.ProvisionsavailableinlocalshopshavetobeflownintoNunavutononeofthemostcostlyairnetworksintheworld,orbroughtbysupplyship

duringthefewice-

weeksofsummer.Itwouldcostafamilyaround￡7,000ayeartore

cemeatthey

obtainedthemselvesthroughhuntingwithimportedmeat.Economicopportunitiesarescarce,andformanypeoplestatebenefitsaretheironlye.

10 ·

Summarywithoutabox:Skillpractice1

Action

n–3Steps

Markthetrackingclues

33

37

Identifythegrr

34

38

featuresofeachgap

35

39

36

40

33

37

Choosesuitablewords

34

38

fromthepassage

35

39

36

40

5 ·

Summarywithoutabox:Skillpractice2

Cambridge7,Test2,Passage2

Questions22-26 ProfessorPrettyconcludesthatour22arehigherthanmostpeopleCompletethesummary realise,becausewemakethreedifferenttypesofpayment.Hefeelsitisbelow. realistictosuggestthatBritainshouldreduceitsrelianceon23.

Althoughmostfarmerswouldbeunabletoadaptto24 ,Professor

Prettywantsthe ernmenttoinitiatechangebyestablishingwhathe

ChooseNOMORETHAN

THREEWORDSfrom

paragraphsforeachanswer.

referstoasa25

both26 and

.Hefeelsthiswouldhelptochangetheattitudesof

.

Testtips

Choosethetrackingclueswhichareeasilyrecognizedinthereadingpassage.

Payattentiontotheorderofproblemsolving.

20 ·

Summarywithoutabox:Skillpractice2

TheTrueCostofFood

Formorethanfortyyearsthecostoffoodhasbeenrising.Ithasnowreachedapointwhereagrowingnumberofpeoplebelievethatitisfartoohigh,andthatbringingitdownwillbeoneofthegreatchallengesofthetwentyfirstcentury.Thatcost,however,isnotinimmediatecash.IntheWestatleast,mostfoodis

nowfarcheapertobuyinrelativetermsthanitwasin1960.Thecostisinthecolla ldamageofthevery

methodsoffoodproductionthathavemadethefoodcheaper:inthepollutionofwater,theenervationofsoil,thedestructionofwildlife,theharmtoanimalwelfareandthethreattohumanhealthcausedbymodernindustrialagriculture.

Firstmechanisation,thenmassuseofchemicalfertilisersandpesticides,thenmonocultures,thenbatteryrearingoflivestock,andnowgeneticengineering-theonwardmarchofintensivefarminghasseemedunstoppableinthelasthalf-century,astheyieldsofproducehavesoared.Butthedamageithascausedhasbeencolossal.InBritain,forexample,manyofourbest-lovedfarmlandbirds,suchastheskylark,thegreypartridge,thelapwingandthecornbunting,havevanishedfromhugestretchesofcountryside,ashave

evenmorewildflowersandinsects.Thisisadirectresultofthewaywehaveproducedourfoodinthelast

fourdecades.Thousandsof ofhedgerows,thousandsofponds,havedisappearedfromthelandscape.

ThefaecalfilthofsalmonfarminghasdrivenwildsalmonfrommanyofthesealochsandriversofScotland.

Naturalsoilfertilityisdrop inmanyareasbecauseofcontinuousindustrialfertiliserandpesticideuse,

whilethegrowthofalgaeisincreasinginlakesbecauseofthefertiliserrun-off.

10 ·

Summarywithoutabox:Skillpractice2

TheTrueCostofFood

Butthecoststosocietycanactuallybe fiedand,whenaddedup,canamounttostaggeringsums.A

remarkableexercisein ngthishasbeencarriedoutbyoneoftheworld'sleadingthinkersonthefutureof

agriculture,ProfessorJulesPretty,DirectoroftheCentreforEnvironmentandSocietyattheUniversityof

Es .ProfessorPrettyandhiscolleaguescalculatedtheexternalitiesofBritishagricultureforoneparticular

year.Theyaddedupthecostsofrepairingthedamageitcaused,andcameupwithatotalfigureof￡2,343m.Thisisequivalentto￡208foreveryhectareofarablelandandpermanentpasture,almostasmuchagainas

thetotal ernmentandEUspendonBritishfarminginthatyear.AndaccordingtoProfessorPretty,itwas

aconservativeestimate.

Thecostsincluded:￡120mforremovalofpesticides;￡16mforremovalofnitrates;￡55mforremovalof

phosphatesandsoil;￡23mfortheremovalofthebugCryptosporidiumfromdrinkingwaterbywatercompanies;￡125mfordamagetowildlifehabitats,hedgerowsanddrystonewalls;￡1,113mfromemissionsofgaseslikelytocontributetoclimatechange;￡106mfromsoilerosionandorganiccarbonlosses;￡169mfromfoodpoisoning;and￡607mfromcattledisease.ProfessorPrettydrawsasimplebutmemorableconclusionfromallthis:ourfoodbillsareactuallythreefold.Wearepayingforoursupposedlycheaperfoodinthreeseparateways:onceoverthecounter,secondlythroughourtaxes,whichprovidetheenormous

subsidiespropleavesbehind.

10

upmodernintensivefarming,andthirdlytocleanupthemessthatmodernfarming

·

Summarywithoutabox:Skillpractice2

TheTrueCostofFood

Socanthetruecostoffoodbebroughtdown?Breakingawayfromindustrialagricultureasthesolutiontohungermaybeveryhardforsomecountries,butinBritain,wheretheimmediateneedtosupplyfoodislessurgent,andthecostsandthedamageofintensivefarminghavebeenclearlyseen,itmaybemore

feasible.The ernmentneedstocreatesustainable,competitiveanddiversefarmingandfoodsectors,

whichwillcontributetoathrivingandsustainableruraleconomy,andadvanceenvironmental,economic,health,andanimalwelfaregoals.

GButifindustrialagricultureistobere ced,whatisaviablealternative?ProfessorPrettyfeelsthat

organicfarmingwouldbetoobigajumpinthinkingandinpracticesformanyfarmers.Furthermore,thepricepremiumwouldputtheproduceoutofreachofmanypoorerconsumers.Heismendingtheimmediateintroductionofa‘GreenerFoodStandard’,whichwouldpushthemarkettowardsmoresustainableenvironmentalpracticesthanthecurrentnorm,whilenotrequiringthefullcommitmenttoorganicproduction.Suchastandardwouldcompriseagreedpracticesfordifferentkindsoffarming,coveringagrochemicaluse,soilhealth,landmanagement,waterandenergyuse,foodsafetyandanimalhealth.Itcouldgoalongway,hesays,toshiftingconsumersaswellasfarmerstowardsamoresustainablesystemofagriculture.

10 ·

Summarywithoutabox:Skillpractice2

Action

n–3Steps

Markthetrackingclues

22

26

Identifythegrr

23

featuresofeachgap

24

25

22

26

Choosesuitablewords

23

fromthepassage

24

25

5 ·

Summarywithoutabox:Skillpractice3

Cambridge7,Test4,Passage1

Questions8-13Completethesummarybelow.

ChooseNOMORETHANTWOWORDSfromthepassageforeachanswer.

Additionalevidencefortheoryofkite-lifting

TheEgyptianshad8 ,whichcouldliftlargepiecesof9 andtheyknewhowtousetheenergyofthewindfromtheirskillas10 .Thediscoveryononepyramidofanobjectwhichresembleda11 suggeststheymayhaveexperimentedwith12 .Inaddition,overtwothousandyearsagokiteswereusedin asweapons,aswellasforsending13 .

Testtips

Isthetitleofthesummaryusefulforyoutolocatethesummary?

Theorderofquestionsmaynotbethesameorderinthereadingpassage.

20 ·

Summarywithoutabox:Skillpractice3

Pullingstringstobuildpyramids

NooneknowsexactlyhowthepyramidswerebuiltMarcusChownreckonstheanswercouldbe‘hangingintheair’.

ThepyramidsofEgyptwerebuiltmorethanthreethousandyearsago,andnooneknowshow.Theconventionalpictureisthattensofthousandsofslavesdraggedstonesonsledges.Butthereisnoevidencetobackthisup.NowaCaliforniansoftwareconsultantcalledMaureenClemmonshassuggestedthatkitesmighthavebeeninvolved.WhileperusingabookonthemonumentsofEgypt,shenoticedahieroglyphthatshowedarowofmenstandinginoddpostures.Theywereholdingwhatlookedlikeropesthatled,viasomekindofmechanicalsystem,toagiantbirdinthesky.Shewonderedifperhapsthebirdwasactuallyagiantkite,andthemenwereusingittoliftaheavyobject.

Intrigued,ClemmonscontactedMortezaGharib,aeronauticsprofessorattheCaliforniaInstituteofTechnology.Hewasfascinatedbytheidea.‘ComingfromIran,IhaveakeeninterestinMiddleEasternscience,’hesays.HetoowaspuzzledbythepicturethathadsparkedClemmons’sinterest.Theobjectintheskyapparentlyhadwingsfartooshortandwideforabird.‘Thepossibilitycertainlyexistedthatitwasakite,’hesays.AndsinceheneededasummerprojectforhisstudentEmilioGraff,investigatingthepossibilityofusingkitesasheavyliftersseemedlikeagoodidea.

10 ·

Summarywithoutabox:Skillpractice3

Pullingstringstobuildpyramids

GharibandGraffsetthemselvesthetaskofraisinga4.5-metrestonecolumnfromhorizontaltovertical,usingnosourceofenergyexceptthewind.Theirinitialcalculationsandscale-modelwind-tunnelexperimentsconvincedthemtheywouldn'tneedastrongwindtoliftthe33.5-tonnecolumn.Evenamodest

,ifsustainedoveralongtime,woulddo.Thekeywastouseapulleysystemthatwouldmagnifytheapplied .Sotheyriggedupatent-shapedscaffolddirectlyabovethetipofthehorizontalcolumn,withpulleyssuspendedfromthescaffold'sapex.Theideawasthatasoneendofthecolumnrose,thebasewouldrollacrossthegroundonatrolley.

Earlierthisyear,theteamputClemmons’sunlikelytheorytothetest,usinga40-square-metrerectangularnylonsail.Thekiteliftedthecolumncleanofftheground.‘Wewereabsolu ystunne,’Gharibsays.‘Theinstantthesailopenedintothewind,ahuge wasgeneratedandthecolumnwasraisedtotheverticalinamere40seconds.’

10 ·

Summarywithoutabox:Skillpractice3

Pullingstringstobuildpyramids

Thewindwasblowingatagentle16to20kilometresanhour,littlemorethanhalfwhattheythoughtwouldbeneeded.Whattheyhadfailedtoreckonwithwaswhathappenedwhenthekitewasopened.‘Therewasahugeinitial —fivetimeslargerthanthesteadystate ,’Gharibsays.Thisjerkmeantthatkitescouldlifthugeweights,Gharibrealised.Evena300-tonnecolumncouldhavebeenliftedtotheverticalwith40orsomenandfourorfivesails.SoClemmonswasright:thepyramid,builderscouldhaveusedkitestoliftmassivestonesinto ce.‘Whethertheyactuallydidisanothermatter,’Gharibsays.Therearenopicturesshowingtheconstructionofthepyramids,sothereisnowayto lwhatreallyhappened.‘Theevidenceforusingkitestomovelargestonesisnobetterorworsethantheevidenceforthebrute method,’Gharibsays.

Indeed,theexperimentshaveleftmanyspecialistsunconvinced.‘Theevidenceforkite-liftingisnon-existent,’saysWillekeWendrich,anassociateprofessorofEgyptologyattheUniversityofCalifornia,LosAngeles.

10 ·

Summarywithoutabox:Skillpractice3

Pullingstringstobuildpyramids

Othersfeelthereismoreofacaseforthetheory.HarnessingthewindwouldnothavebeenaproblemforplishedsailorsliketheEgyptians.Andtheyareknowntohaveusedwoodenpulleys,whichcouldhavebeenmadestrongenoughtobeartheweightofmassiveblocksofstone.Inaddition,thereissomephysicalevidencethattheancientEgyptianswereinterestedinflight.AwoodenartefactfoundonthesteppyramidatSaqqaraIooksuncannilylikeamodernglider.Althoughitdatesfromseveralhundredyearsafterthe

buildingofthepyramids,itssophisticationsuggeststhattheEgyptiansmightnavebeendevelo ideasof

flightforalongtime.Andotherancientcivilisationscertainlyknewaboutkites;asearlyas1250BC,thewereusingthemtodelivermessagesanddumpflamingdebrisontheirfoes.

Theexperimentsmightevenhavepracticalusesnowadays.Thereareplentyof cesaroundtheglobe

wherepeoplehavenoaccesstoheavymachinery,butdoknowhowtodealwithwind,sailingandbasicmechanicalprinciples.GharibhasalreadybeencontactedbyacivilengineerinNicaragua,whowantstoputupbuildingswithadoberoofssupportedbyconcretearchesonasitethatheavyequipmentcan'treach.His

ideaistobuildthearcheshorizontally,thenlifttheminto ceusingkites.‘We’vegivenhimsomedesign

hints,’saysGharib.‘We'rejustwaitingforhimtoreportback.’Sowhethertheywereactuallyusedtobuildthepyramidsornot,itseemsthatkitesmaymakesensibleconstructiontoolsinthe21stcenturyAD.

10 ·

Summarywithoutabox:Skillpractice3

Action

n–3Steps

Markthetrackingclues

8

12

Identifythegrr

9

13

featuresofeachgap

10

11

8

12

Choosesuitablewords

9

13

fromthepassage

10

11

5 ·

Summarywithoutabox:Skillpractice4

Cambridge9,Test4,Passage2

Questions24-26

Howchildrenacquireasenseofidentity

Completethesummary

below.

First,childrencometorealizethattheycanhaveaneffectontheworld

aroundthem,forexamplebyhandlingobjects,orcausingtheimageto

ChooseONEWORDONLY

fromthepassageforeach

movewhentheyfacea24 .Thisaspectofself-awarenessisdifficult

toresearchdirectly,becauseof25 problems.

answer.

Secondly,childrenstarttoeawareofhowtheyareviewedbyothers.Oneimportantstageinthisprocessisthevisualrecognitionof

Testtips

Isthetitleofthesummaryusefulforyoutolocatethesummary?

Payattentiontothestructureofreadingpassage.

themselveswhichusuallyoccurswhentheyreachtheageoftwo.In

Westernsocietiesatleast,thedevelopmentofselfawarenessisoften

linkedtoasenseof26 ,andcanleadtodisputes.

20 ·

Summarywithoutabox:Skillpractice4

Youngchildren’ssenseofidentity

Asenseofselfdevelopsinyoungchildrenbydegrees.Theprocesscanusefullybethoughtofintermsof

thegradualemergenceoftwosomewhatseparatefeatures:theselfasasubject,andtheselfasanobject.WilliamJamesintroducedt