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古典組織管理理論第1頁,共87頁,2023年,2月20日,星期一HenriFayol(1841–1925)wasaFrenchminingengineer,directorofmines,andmanagementtheorist,whodevelopedindependentofthetheoryofScientificManagement,ageneraltheoryofbusinessadministrationalsoknownasFayolism.Hewasoneofthemostinfluentialcontributorstomodernconceptsofmanagement.法國1841-1925西方古典管理理論在法國的最杰出代表。亨利·法約爾,法國科學管理專家。管理學先驅之一。1841年生于土耳其伊斯坦布爾,1925年卒于巴黎。早年曾為采礦師,是一位在理論上有特殊發現的地質學者。1860年從圣艾蒂安國立礦業學院畢業后進入康門塔里福爾香堡(Comentry-Fourchambault)采礦冶金公司,成為一名采礦工程師,并在此度過了整個職業生涯。他的一般管理理論也被稱為法約爾主義,對現代管理理念產生了重大影響。第2頁,共87頁,2023年,2月20日,星期一BiographyFayolwasbornin1841inasuburbofIstanbul,Turkey,wherehisfather,anengineer,wasappointedsuperintendent主管ofworkstobuildabridge.TheyreturnedtoFrancein1847.Fayolstudiedattheminingschool。第3頁,共87頁,2023年,2月20日,星期一In1916hepublishedhisexperienceinthebook"Administrationofindustryingeneral",onlyafewyearsafterTaylorhadpublishedhistheoryofScientificManagement.第4頁,共87頁,2023年,2月20日,星期一When19yearsoldhestartedasanengineerataminingcompany.Hebecamedirectorin1888,()whentheminecompanyemployedover1,000people,andheldthatpositionover30yearsuntil1918.By1900thecompanywasoneofthelargestproducersofironandsteelinFranceandwasregardedasavitalindustry.第5頁,共87頁,2023年,2月20日,星期一FayolismFayolismisoneofthefirstcomprehensive綜合的statementsof表述ageneraltheoryofmanagementdevelopedbyFayol.Hehasproposedthattherearefiveprimaryfunctionsofmanagement管理的五項功能and14principlesofmanagement14條原則.Thefiveprimaryfunctionsofmanagementwaspopularized推廣byFayolwiththeacronym縮寫ofPOCCC:planning,organizing,commanding,corordinating,controling1885年起任法國最大的礦冶公司總經理達30年。在實踐和大量調查研究的基礎上,提出了管理功能理論。將管理作為一個學科進行傳授。1916年《工業管理與一般管理》問世,是他一生管理經驗與管理思想的總結,他認為他的管理理論雖然是以大企業為研究對象,但除了可應用于工商業之外,還適用于政府、教會、慈善團體、軍事組織以及其他各種事業。所以,人們一般認為法約爾是第一個概括和闡述一般管理理論的管理學家。第6頁,共87頁,2023年,2月20日,星期一一、經營與管理及其關系經營技術活動商業活動管理活動計劃組織指揮協調財務活動會計活動安全活動第7頁,共87頁,2023年,2月20日,星期一二、法約爾的14項管理原則(1)勞動分工:專業化通過使雇員的工作更有效率,從而提高了工作的產出權力與責任:管理者必須有命令下級的權利,但是行使職權的地方都應該建立相應的責任紀律:雇員必須遵守和尊重統治組織的規則統一指揮:每一個雇員只接受來自一個上司的命令統一領導:組織應當具有單一的行動計劃指導管理者和雇員個人利益服從整體利益:任何雇員個人或雇員群體的利益不應置于組織的整體利益之上人員報酬:對雇員提供的服務必須付給公平的工資第8頁,共87頁,2023年,2月20日,星期一二、法約爾的14項管理原則(2)適當的集權與分權:管理者應該根據不同實際情況適時改變集權與分權的比例等級鏈(ChainofCommand):上下級之間建立明確的職權等級系列秩序:雇員和物料應當在恰當的時間處在恰當的位置公正:管理者應當和藹、公平地對待下屬保持人員穩定:管理當局應該提供有規則的人事計劃,并保證有合適的人選接替職位的空缺首創精神:允許雇員發起和實施計劃將會調動他們的極大熱情團隊精神:鼓勵團隊精神將會在組織中建立其和諧與團結第9頁,共87頁,2023年,2月20日,星期一三、管理工作的5大職能法約爾把管理活動分為計劃、組織、指揮、協調和控制五大職能。第10頁,共87頁,2023年,2月20日,星期一簡評從經營活動中獨立出管理活動提出管理活動所必需的五大職能提出14項管理原則為管理科學提供了一套科學的理論構架一般管理理論后來成為管理過程學派的理論基礎法約爾為管理教育提供了理論依據第11頁,共87頁,2023年,2月20日,星期一TheFiveFunctionsare:1.PLANNINGdrawingupplansofactionsthatcombineunity一致性,continuity,flexibilityandprecision精確性giventheorganisation'sresources,typeandsignificanceofworkandfuturetrends.第12頁,共87頁,2023年,2月20日,星期一Planningisthemostdifficultofthefivetasksandrequirestheactiveparticipationoftheentireorganisation.Planningmustbecoordinatedondifferentlevelsandwithdifferenttimehorizons界限;第13頁,共87頁,2023年,2月20日,星期一2.ORGANISINGprovidingcapital資本,personnelandrawmaterialsfortheday-to-dayrunningofthebusiness,andbuildingastructuretomatchthework.
第14頁,共87頁,2023年,2月20日,星期一Organisationalstructuredependsentirelyonthenumberofemployees.Anincreaseinthenumberoffunctionsexpandstheorganisationhorizontallyandpromotesadditionallayersofsupervision;第15頁,共87頁,2023年,2月20日,星期一
3.COMMANDINGoptimisingreturnfromallemployeesintheinterestoftheentireenterprise.Successfulmanagershavepersonalintegrity誠實,communicate表達clearlyandbasetheirjudgmentsonregularaudits審計.Theirthoroughknowledgeofpersonnelcreatesunity,energy,initiativeandloyaltyandeliminatesincompetence不稱職;第16頁,共87頁,2023年,2月20日,星期一4.COORDINATINGunifying一致andharmonizing協調activitiesandeffortstomaintainthebalancebetweentheactivitiesoftheorganisation.Fayolrecommendedweeklyconferencesfordepartmentheadstosolveproblemsofcommoninterest;第17頁,共87頁,2023年,2月20日,星期一5.CONTROLLINGidentifyingweaknessesanderrorsbycontrollingfeedback反饋,andconforming一致性activitieswithplans,policiesandinstructions.第18頁,共87頁,2023年,2月20日,星期一ThewordControlclearlyprovoked引起somemisunderstandingbyEnglish-readersbecauseits1stmeaninginFrenchis"tocheck"andits2ndmeaningis"tohaveagrip抓住,影響over".AnditistheotherwayroundinEnglish.SofortheFrench-readerFayolclearlymeant"Checkeverything!".第19頁,共87頁,2023年,2月20日,星期一Fayol'smanagementprocesswentfurtherthanTaylor'sbasichierarchical層級modelbyallowingcommandfunctionstooperateefficientlyandeffectivelythroughco-ordinationandcontrolmethods.ForFayol,themanagingdirectoroverlooked忽視alivingorganism有機體系thatrequiresliaison[li*eizon]聯絡officersandjointcommittees.第20頁,共87頁,2023年,2月20日,星期一"TheArtofCommandingreliesuponcertainpersonalqualitiesandupontheknowledgeofmanagementgeneralprinciples.Themanagerinchargeofacommandmentmust:第21頁,共87頁,2023年,2月20日,星期一haveadeepknowledgeofhisstaff;cull剔除theincapables;wellknowtheconventions傳統,習俗bindingtheorganisationanditsmembers;givethegoodexample(byhisattitude);conductregularinspectionsofthe?corpssocial?;第22頁,共87頁,2023年,2月20日,星期一gettogetherhismainpartnersinconferences(meetings)wherearepreparedtheUnityofDirectionandtheFocusofEfforts;notbedistracted忙亂bydetails;aimtomakeprevalent推廣,流行amonghisstaff,energy,initiativeand?dévouement?."第23頁,共87頁,2023年,2月20日,星期一TheAmericanLutherGulickandBritLydnallUrwickexpandedFayol'slisttosevenexecutivemanagementactivitiessummarisedbytheacronymPOSDCORB:第24頁,共87頁,2023年,2月20日,星期一planning:determineobjectivesinadvanceandthemethodstoachievethem;organising:establishastructureofauthorityforallwork;第25頁,共87頁,2023年,2月20日,星期一staffing安置職工:recruit,hireandtrainworkers;maintainfavourableworkingconditions;directing指示:makedecisions,issue發布orders圣職anddirectives指令;第26頁,共87頁,2023年,2月20日,星期一coordinating:interrelate相互關聯allsectorsoftheorganisation;reporting:inform通報hierarchy領導層throughreports,recordsandinspections;budgeting:dependonfiscal財政的planning,accountingandcontrol.第27頁,共87頁,2023年,2月20日,星期一The6typesofOperations經營ForFayolanyOrganisationcanbesubdivided細分intosixtypesofOperations.EachOperationbeingfulfilledbyitscorresponding相應的EssentialFunction:第28頁,共87頁,2023年,2月20日,星期一TechnicalOperations操作(production,manufacturing,transformation轉換)CommercialOperations運營(purchases,sales,exchanges)FinancialOperations(seekforcapitalandfinancemanagement)第29頁,共87頁,2023年,2月20日,星期一SecurityOperations(protectionofgoodsandpeople)AccountingOperations會計運營(balance,P&L,costcontrol,statistics,etc)Administrative'Operations(Management)(seebelowThe5ElementsofAdministration)第30頁,共87頁,2023年,2月20日,星期一In1925sixmonthbeforeHenriFayol’sdeathVerneyhelpedFayolredefineThefunctionofadministration.Theolddefinitionwentasfollows:Theactivitiesinvolvedinbusinessescanallbeclassifiedunderoneofthefollowingsixheadings標題,方面:第31頁,共87頁,2023年,2月20日,星期一
TECHNICAL,COMMERCIAL,FINANCIAL,SECURITY,ACCOUNTING,ADMINISTRATIVEorganization,command,coordinationandcontrol.Comparedwiththenewdefinition:Theactivitiesinvolvedinbusinessescanallbeclassifiedunderoneofthefollowingfiveheadings:第32頁,共87頁,2023年,2月20日,星期一
TECHNICAL,COMMERCIAL,FINANCIAL,SECURITY,ACCOUNTINGTheseactivitiesmustbeplanned,organized,directed,coordinatedandcontrolled,inaword:administered.第33頁,共87頁,2023年,2月20日,星期一Theremovalofthedistinctionbetweenmanagementandadministrationandthere-definitionofadministration,itappearsthatFayolhadfinallysynthesizedthesetwoconcepts.Thereforethepreviousdifficultieswiththisdistinctionnolongerexist.第34頁,共87頁,2023年,2月20日,星期一The9Levels層次Fayolwasrepresentinganorganisationlikealivingbody(?corpssocial?,i.e."socialbody")withmainorganshierarchicallystructuredasfollow:第35頁,共87頁,2023年,2月20日,星期一Shareholders持股人,Board董事會ofAdministration,GeneralDirectionanditsGeneralstaff(advisors)第36頁,共87頁,2023年,2月20日,星期一Regional/localDirections,MainEngineers,ServicesManagers,WorkshopsManagers,Foremen,工頭Workers.第37頁,共87頁,2023年,2月20日,星期一The14PrinciplesofAdministrationDivisionofwork:Reducesthespan跨度ofattentionoreffortforanyonepersonorgroup.Developspracticeorroutine慣例andfamiliarity.Authority:"Therighttogiveorders.Shouldnotbeconsideredwithoutreferencetoresponsibility."第38頁,共87頁,2023年,2月20日,星期一Unityofdirection:"OneheadandOneplanforagroupofactivitieswiththesameobjective."Subordination從屬ofIndividualIntereststotheCommonInterest:"Theinterestsofoneindividualorgroupshouldnotprevail壓倒overthegeneralorcommongood."第39頁,共87頁,2023年,2月20日,星期一Remuneration酬勞,償還ofpersonnel:"Payshouldbefairtoboththeworkeraswellastheorganization."Centralisation:"Isalwayspresenttoagreaterorlesserextent,dependingonthesizeofthecompanyandthequalityofitsmanagers."第40頁,共87頁,2023年,2月20日,星期一Discipline:"Outward表面的marksofrespectinaccordancewithformalorinformalagreementsbetweenafirmandit'semployees."Unityofcommand:"Onemanonesuperior!"第41頁,共87頁,2023年,2月20日,星期一Scalar條塊結合chain:"Thelineofauthorityfromtoptobottomoftheorganization."Order:"Aplaceforeverythingandeverythinginitsrightplace;ie.therightmanintherightplace."Equity:"Acombinationofkindnessandjusticetowardsemployees."第42頁,共87頁,2023年,2月20日,星期一Stabilityofpersonneltenure:"Employeesneedtobegiventimetosettleintotheirjobs,eventhoughthismaybealengthyperiodinthecaseofsomemanagers."第43頁,共87頁,2023年,2月20日,星期一Initiative:"Withinthelimitsofauthorityanddiscipline,alllevelsofstaffshouldbeencouragedtoshowinitiative."Unionisstrength:"Harmonyisagreatstrengthtoanorganization;teamworkshouldbeencouraged."第44頁,共87頁,2023年,2月20日,星期一Fayolsuggestedthatitisimportanttohaveunityofcommand:aconceptthatsuggeststhereshouldbeonlyonesupervisorforeachpersoninanorganization.LikeSocrates,Fayolsuggestedthatmanagementisauniversalhumanactivitythatappliesequallywelltothefamilyasitdoestothecorporation.第45頁,共87頁,2023年,2月20日,星期一The16ManagementDutiesoftheOrganisationToaimatgivingseriousthoughtstoactivityplansandhavingthemfirmlyexecuted.Toaimathavingemployedpeopleandusedequipmentbeingrelevanttothegoal,theresourcesandtheneedsoftheorganisation.第46頁,共87頁,2023年,2月20日,星期一TosetupauniqueDirection(topmanagement),skilledandvigorous.Toconsultothersforactions,tocoordinateefforts.Toformulatedecisionsinaclear,cleanandpreciseway.第47頁,共87頁,2023年,2月20日,星期一Toaimtoanefficientrecruitment,eachdepartmentneedingtobeleadbyaskilledandactiveman,eachemployeebeingattheplacewherehecanprovidethemostservices.Todefineclearlytheattributions(i.e.jobdescription).第48頁,共87頁,2023年,2月20日,星期一Toencouragepeopletotakeinitiativesandresponsibilities.TopayfairlyandexpertlyfortheservicesprovidedtotheOrganisation.第49頁,共87頁,2023年,2月20日,星期一tosanction制裁faultsanderrors.Toenforcediscipline.ToaimathavingindividualinterestssubordinatedtotheOrganisation'sinterest.TogiveaspecialattentiontotheUnityofCommand.第50頁,共87頁,2023年,2月20日,星期一Tosupervisethematerialorderandsocialorder(i.e.tokeeptheplacetidyandtoavoidstrikes).Toverifyeverything(i.e.toapplyqualitycontroloneveryoperation).Tofightagainsttheredtape官方文章attitude.第51頁,共87頁,2023年,2月20日,星期一The7QualitiesThe7qualitieshewasexpectingfrommanagerswere:Healthandvigour;Cleverness;Moralqualities;第52頁,共87頁,2023年,2月20日,星期一Generalknowledge(culture);Managementcapacity;Notions觀念aboutotherfunctions(activities);Thestrongestskillsinthefunctionmanaged.第53頁,共87頁,2023年,2月20日,星期一FortheTopManagingDirector,the7thqualitywas"thebroadest廣泛的skillsinthededicated專門的activityoftheorganisation".Forexample,iftheorganisationwasacarmanufacturer,thetopDirectormusthavethelargestpossibleknowledgeaboutthemanufacturingofcars.ThiswassuggestingthatthisDirectorwouldhavetobeprobablyaformercarmanufacturingengineer.第54頁,共87頁,2023年,2月20日,星期一ManagersneedtheabilitytoperformtheelementsofManagementbuttheyalsoneedabilitiesintheTechnical,commercial,financial,security,andAccountingareasoftheenterprise.ManagerialAbilitybecamemoreimportantashemovesuptoupperlevelmanagement.Fayol'sideasinspiredanumberofindividualstoteachandWriteaboutmanagement(Wren).第55頁,共87頁,2023年,2月20日,星期一Research&teachingofManagementFayolbelievedmanagementtheoriescouldbedeveloped,thentaught(tostudentsofGrandesécoles).HistheorieswerepublishedinamonographtitledGeneralandIndustrialManagement(1916).Indoingso,hestated,"...startingageneraldiscussion-thatiswhatIamtryingtodobypublishingthissurvey,andIhopethatatheorywillemanatefromit."第56頁,共87頁,2023年,2月20日,星期一Histheoriesandideaswereideallyaresultofhisenvironment;thatofapostrevolutionizedFranceinwhicharepublicbourgeoiswasemerging.Abourgeoishimself,Hebelievedinthecontrollingofworkersinordertoachieveagreaterproductivityoverallothermanagerialconsiderations.第57頁,共87頁,2023年,2月20日,星期一
However,throughreadingGeneralandIndustrialManagement,itisapparentthatFayoladvocatedaflexibleapproachtomanagement,onewhichhebelievedcouldbeappliedtoanycircumstancewhetherinthehome,theworkplace,orwithinthestate.第58頁,共87頁,2023年,2月20日,星期一
Hestressedtheimportanceandthepracticeofforecastingandplanninginordertoapplytheseideasandtechniqueswhichdemonstratedhisabilityandhisemphasisinbeingabletoadapttoanysortofsituation.第59頁,共87頁,2023年,2月20日,星期一
InGeneralandIndustrialManagementheoutlinesanagendawhereby,underanacceptedtheoryofmanagement,everycitizenisexposedandtaughtsomeformofmanagementeducationandallowedtoexercisemanagementabilitiesfirstatschoolandlateronintheworkplace.第60頁,共87頁,2023年,2月20日,星期一"Everyoneneedssomeconceptsofmanagement;inthehome,inaffairsofstate,theneedformanagerialabilityisinkeepingwiththeimportanceoftheundertaking,andforindividualpeopletheneediseverywhereingreateraccordancewiththepositionoccupied.'-excerptfromGeneralandIndustrialManagement第61頁,共87頁,2023年,2月20日,星期一DiscussionFayolhasbeendescribedasthefatherofmodernoperationalmanagementtheory(George,p.146).Althoughhisideashavebecomeauniversalpartofthemodernmanagementconcepts,somewriterscontinuetoassociatehimwithFrederickWinslowTaylor.第62頁,共87頁,2023年,2月20日,星期一
Taylor'sscientificmanagementdealswiththeefficientorganisationofproductioninthecontextofacompetitiveenterprisethathastocontrolitsproductioncosts.ThatwasonlyoneofthemanyareasthatFayoladdressed.PerhapstheconnectionwithTaylorismoreoneoftime,thanofperspective.第63頁,共87頁,2023年,2月20日,星期一
AccordingtoClaudeGeorge(1968),aprimarydifferencebetweenFayolandTaylorwasthatTaylorviewedmanagementprocessesfromthebottomup,whileFayolvieweditfromthetopdown.第64頁,共87頁,2023年,2月20日,星期一
George'scommentmayhaveoriginatedfromFayolhimself.IntheclassicGeneralandIndustrialManagementFayolwrotethat"Taylor'sapproachdiffersfromtheonewehaveoutlinedinthatheexaminesthefirmfromthe"bottomup."第65頁,共87頁,2023年,2月20日,星期一Hestartswiththemostelementalunitsofactivity—theworkers'actions—thenstudiestheeffectsoftheiractionsonproductivity,devisesnewmethodsformakingthemmoreefficient,andapplieswhathelearnsatlowerlevelstothehierarchy...(Fayol,1987,p.43)第66頁,共87頁,2023年,2月20日,星期一"HesuggeststhatTaylorhasstaffanalystsandadvisorsworkingwithindividualsatlowerlevelsoftheorganizationtoidentifythewaystoimproveefficiency.AccordingtoFayol,theapproachresultsina"negation取消oftheprincipleofunityofcommand".第67頁,共87頁,2023年,2月20日,星期一FayolcriticizedTaylor’sfunctionalmanagementinthisway.“…themostmarkedoutwardcharacteristicsoffunctionalmanagementliesinthefactthateachworkman,第68頁,共87頁,2023年,2月20日,星期一insteadofcomingindirectcontactwiththemanagementatonepointonly,…receiveshisdailyordersandhelpfromeightdifferentbosses…”(Fayol,1949,p.68.)第69頁,共87頁,2023年,2月20日,星期一Thoseeight,Taylorsaid,were(1)routeclerks,(2)instructioncardmen,(3)costandtimeclerks,(4)gangbosses,(5)speedbosses,(6)inspectors,(7)repairbosses,andthe(8)shopdisciplinarian(p.68).-This,Fayolsaid,wasanunworkablesituation,andthatTaylormusthavesomehowreconciledthedichotomyinsomewaynotdescribedinTaylor'sworks.第70頁,共87頁,2023年,2月20日,星期一Fayol'sdesireforteachingageneralizedtheoryofmanagementstemmedfromthebeliefthateachindividualofanorganizationatonepointoranothertakesondutiesthatinvolvemanagerialdecisions.UnlikeTaylor,however,whobelievedmanagementactivitywastheexclusivedutyofanorganizationsdominantclass.Fayol'sapproachwasmoreinsyncwithhisideaofAuthoritywhichstatedthattherighttogiveordersshouldnotbeconsideredwithouttheacceptanceandunderstandingofresponsibility.第71頁,共87頁,2023年,2月20日,星期一NotedasoneoftheearlyfathersoftheHumanRelationsmovements,FayolexpressedideasandtheorieswithpracticeswhichdifferedfromTaylorinthattheyshowedflexibilityandadaptationaswellasstressedtheimportanceofInterpersonalInteractionamongemployees.第72頁,共87頁,2023年,2月20日,星期一Fayolbelievedthatanimosity敵意anduneasewithintheworkplaceoccurredamongemployeesindifferentdepartmentsoftenduetocommunicationinwriting;i.e.letters,(orincurrenttimes)e-mails.Amongscholarsoforganizationalcommunicationandpsychology,e-mailsandlettersasaformofcommunicationinworkaresaidtoinduceorsolidifytheideaofimportanceofanindividualwithintheworkplaceandfurthermoregivewaytoselfishthinkingwhichleadstoargumentsandconflictamongemployees第73頁,共87頁,2023年,2月20日,星期一Fayolexpressedthisideainhisbookbystating,"insomefirms...employeesinneighboringdepartmentswithnumerouspointsofcontact,orevenemployeeswithinadepartment,whocouldquiteeasilymeet,communicatewitheachotherinwriting...thereistobeobservedacertainamountofanimosityprevailingbetweendifferentdepartmentsordifferentemployeeswithinadepartment.Thesystemofwrittencommunicationusuallybringsthisresult.Thereisawayofputtinganendtothisdeplorablesystemandthatistoforbidallcommunicationinwritingwhichcouldeasilyandadvantageouslybereplacedbyverbalones."第74頁,共87頁,2023年,2月20日,星期一WhileFayol'stheoriesaretypicallyrefereedtoasrigidandinflexible,itispracticesandtheoriessuchasthesewhichshowflexibilityinhistheoriesofmanagement.Hedevelopedandusedthesesideasinordertodiagnoseaproblemandeventuallyfindsolutionswhichprovidedmethodstoworkaroundandfixthesesituations.Thisallledtohisgeneralideaofcontrollingemployeesinordertoachieveincreasedproductivity.第75頁,共87頁,2023年,2月20日,星期一FayolalsoexpressedideaswhichwouldlateronleadtoinfluenceSystemsandContingencytheories.Thetwoaresaidtohaveemergedasaresultofmanagementtheorists'desiretointegrateideasofthehumanrelationtheorieswithinmanagementwhichiswhatFayol'sGeneraltheoryofManagementreliedupon.第76頁,共87頁,2023年,2月20日,星期一Systemstheory,firstintroducedin1958byLudwigvonBertalanffyandlateronpublishedin1968attemptstounderstandorganizationsbycomparingthemtolivingorganisms.SystemsTheoryisbrokendownintofourdistinctcharacteristicswhichreflectthebiologicalresemblancebetweenlivingorganismsandorganizations.第77頁,共87頁,2023年,2月20日,星期一First,Wholenessexpressestheideathatanorganizationisasetofindividualelementswhichareinterdependentinthesensethattheactionsofoneindividualorgroupwillaffecttherestofthesystemororganization.ThesecondisdescribedasHierarchyorthedivisionofindividualsintosubsystems.第78頁,共87頁,2023年,2月20日,星期一Thiscanbeillustratedbygroupswithinanorganization.Withregardstoorganisms,thiscouldbecalledtheorgansofthebody.Third,theorganizationmayberegardedas,"Openorclosed,"inthatsystemscanbecharacterizedbytheirlevelofactiveexchangewiththeoutsideenvironment;successfulorganizationsmustbeactivelyopen.Lastly,opensystemsarecharacterizedbytwoprocesses;maintenanceandadaptation.BothoftheseprocessesactonFeedbacktoactionstakenbythegroupsinordertomaintainstabilityandadapttoenvironmentalchanges.第79頁,共87頁,2023年,2月20日,星期一Fayolillustratedalloftheseideasinhistheoriesongeneralmanagement.First,hebelievedinthedivisionoflaboramongorganizations(subsystems)byrelatingthemtolivingorganisms.Hestatesthat,"...itisobservableintheanimalworldwherethemorehighlydevelopedthecreaturethemorehighlydifferentiatedit'sorgans."第80頁,共87頁,2023年,2月20日,星期一
Hecontinuestodescribethesamescenarioreplicatingthatofanindividualwithinagroupandofagroupwithinanorganization.Thisisdescribedinhis14principlesastheprincipleofOrder(seethe14principles)SystemTheoryreliesheavilyoninterdependencewhichFayolalsosuggestsisavitalpartofmanagementashestates,第81頁,共87頁,2023年,2月20日,星期一
""Man...playsarolelikethatofacellintheanimal...Asthedevelopmentoftheorganismiseffectedthegrouping
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