雅思閱讀機經一、考試時間：20151212日（周六）第一篇認為相對于悲觀，人們很少研究樂觀的程度以及其對人健康的影響，因此在1995年對Educatingpsyche以及劍五MotivatingemployeesunderadverseconditionsCognition，兒童認知，講述Youngchildren’ssenseofidentity作為參考文Passage1:Optimismandhealth，樂觀與健康Passage2:Farmers，新西蘭農民Passage3:Cognition程度以及其對人健康的影響。1995程度以及其對人健康的影響。1995年的研究表明越大人越悲觀。題型分布與 7 lung immune heart DBAEYNYOptimismandMindsetisall.Howyoustarttheyearwillsetthetemtefor2009,andtwoscientificallybackedcharactertraitsholdthekey:optimismandresilience(iftheprospectleavesyoufeelingpessimisticallyspineless,thegoodnewsisthatyoucansignificantlyboostbothofthesequalities).Facedwith12monthsofplummetingeconomicsandrisinghumandistress,staunchlymaintainingarosyviewmightseemdeucedlyPollyannaish.Buthereweencountertheoptimismparadox.AsBricePitt,anemeritusprofessorofthepsychiatryofoldageatImperialCollege,London,toldme:optimistsareunrealistic.Depressivepeopleseethingsastheyreallyare,butthatisadisadvantagefromanevolutionarypointofview.Optimismisapieceofevolutionaryequipmentthatearnedusthroughmillenniaofsetbacks.Ithasbeenknownthatoptimistichassomethingtodowiththelonglife,andoptimistshaveplentytobehappyabout.Inotherwords,ifyoucanconvinceyourselfthatthingswillgetbetter,theoddsofithappeningwillimprove-becauseyoukeeponyingthegame.Inthislight,optimism‘isahabitualwayofexiningyoursetbackstoyourself’,reportsMartinSeligman,thepsychologyprofessorandauthorofLearnedOptimism.Theresearchshowsthatwhentimesgettough,optimistsdobetterthanpessimists-theysucceedbetteratwork,respondbettertostress,fewerdepressiveepisodesandachieve alStudiesalsoshowthatbeliefcanhelpwiththefinancialpinch.ChadWallens,asocialforecasterattheHenleyCentrewhosurveyedmiddle-classBritons'beliefsabout e,hasfoundthatthepeoplewhofeelwealthiest,andthosewhofeelpoorest,actuallyhavealmostthesameamountofmoneyattheirdisposal.Theirattitudesandbehaviourpatterns,however,aredifferentfromoneanother.’Optimistshavesomethingelsetobecheerfulabout-ingeneral,theyaremorerobust.Forexample,astudyof660volunteersbytheYaleUniversitypsychologistDr.BeccaLevy,foundthatthinkingpositivelyaddsanaverageof7yearstoyourlife.OtherAmericanresearchclaimstohaveidentifiedaphysicalmechanismbehindthis.AHarvardMedicalSchoolstudyof670menfoundthattheoptimistshavesignificantlybetterlungfunction.Theleadauthor,Dr.RosalindWright,believesthatattitudesomehowstrengthenstheimmunesystem.“Preliminaiystudiesonheartpatientssuggestthat,bychanginga 'soutlook,youcanimprovetheirmortalityrisk,“shesays.Fewstudieshavetriedtoascertaintheproportionofoptimistsintheworld.Buta1995nationwidesurveyconductedfortheAmericanmagazineAdweekfoundthatabouthalfthepopulationcountedthemselvesasoptimists,withwomenslightlymoreaptthanmen(53percentversus48percent)toseethesunnyside.Althoughsomeoptimistsmaybeaccurateintheirpositivebeliefsaboutthefuture,othersmaybeunrealistic-theiroptimismismisced,accordingtoAmericanPsychologicalAssociation.Researchshowsthatsomesmokersexhibitunrealisticoptimismbyunderestimatingtheirrelativechancesofexperiencingdisease.Animportantquestioniswhethersuchunrealisticoptimismisassociatedwithrisk-relatedattitudesandbehavior.Weaddressedthisquestionbyinvestigatingifone,sperceivedriskofdevelolungcancer,overandaboveone'sobjectivepredictedacceptanceofmythsandotherbeliefsaboutHierarchicalregressionsshowedthatthoseindividualswhowereunrealisticallyoptimisticweremorelikelytoendorsebeliefsthatthereisnoriskoflungcancerifoneonlysmokesforafewyearsandthatgettinglungcancerdependsonone'sgenes.Ofcourse,thereisnoguaranteethatoptimismwillinsulateyoufromthecrunch'sworsteffects,butthebeststrategyisstilltokeepsmilingandthankyourluckystars.Because(aseverygoodsportscoachknows)adversityischaracter-forming-solongasyoupractisetheskillsofresilience.Researchamongtycoonsandbusinessleadersshowsthatthepathtosuccessisoftenlitteredwithfailure:arecordofsackings,bankruptciesandblisteringcastigations.Butinsteadofcurlingintoafoetalballbeneaththecoffeetable,theyresilientlypickthemselvesup,learnfromtheirpratfallsandmarchboldlytowardsthenextopportunity.TheAmericanPsychologicalAssociationdefinesresilienceastheabilitytoadaptinthefaceofadversity,traumaortragedy.Aresilient gothroughdifficultyanduncertainty,butheorshewilldoggedlybounceOptimismisoneofthecentraltraitsrequiredinbuildingresilience,sayYaleUniversityinvestigatorsintheAnnualReviewofClinicalPsychology.Theyaddthatresilientpeoplelearntoholdontotheirsenseofhumourandthiscanhelpthemtokeepaflexibleattitudewhenbigchangesofnarewarranted.Theabilitytoacceptyourlotwithequanimityalsoysanimportantrole,thestudyadds.Oneofthebestwaystoacquireresilienceisthroughexperiencingadifficultchildhood,thesociologistStevenStackreportsintheJournalofSocialPsychology.Forexample,shortmenarelesslikelytocommitsuicidethantallguys,hesays,becauseshortiesdeveloppsychologicaldefenseskillstohandlethebulliesandmickey-takingthattheirlackofstatureattracts.Bycontrast,thosewhoenjoyedadversity-youthscanderailedbysetbackslateronbecausethey'veneverbeeninoculatedK.Learningto eyourfears.Ifyouarehandicappedbyhavinghadahappychildhood,thenpractisingproactiveoptimismcanhelpyoutoemoreresilient.Studiesofresilientpeopleshowthattheytakemorerisks;theycourtfailureandlearnnottofearit.Anddespitebeingthick-skinned,resilienttypesarealsomoreopenthanaveragetootherpeople.Bouncingthroughknockbacksisallpartoftheprocess.It"saboutoptimisticrisk-takingbeingconfidentthatpeoplewilllikeyou.Simplysmilingandbeingwarmtopeoplecanhelp.It'sanaltruisticpathtoself-interest-andifitachievesnothingelse,itwillreinanage-oldhardtimescanbringoutthebestin題型分布與題型分布與Generosityofferedinanoccasionforhelthepoor.Innovationofoffermadeaheadofmodem-timebusinessbythehead.Fashionwasnotchosenasitsstrongpoint.AromanticeventonamemorialvenuededicatingtoFarmers.Farmerswassoldtoaprivate .mail-chainbuyingbigALincolnBRodCIanProductbecameworseaswrongaspectfocused.AnunprecedentedstatementmadebyFarmersinNewZealand.Characterof waschanged.TheFarmersParadeofHistoryofFarmertrading :In1909RobertLaidlawestablishes LaidlawLeedsinFortStreet,Auckland.Then,Branchexpansion:purchaseofGreenandColebrookchainstore;furtherprovincialstoresinAucklandandWaikatotofollow.Openingoffirstfurnitureandbootfactory.In1920,nowhas29branches;Whangareistorepurchased.DoorsopenatHobsonStreetfordirectsellingtopublic.FirmestablishesLondonandNewYorkbuyingoffices.WithpermissionfromtheHarbourBoard,thelargeFARMERSelectricsignontheWyndhamStreetfrontageiserected.In1935,ifthemerchandisehaschanged,thelanguageofthecatalogueshasn’t.RobertLaidlaw,theScottishimmigrantwhoestablishedthecentury-oldbusiness,mighthavebeenscriptingamodem-dayevisioncommercialwhenhetoldhisearliestcustomers:Satisfaction,oryourmoneyback."ItwasthefirstmoneybackguaranteeeverofferedinNewZealandbyanyfirm,"saysIanHunter,businesshistorian."Andhismissionstatementwas,potentially,onlythesecondoneeverfoundintheworld."Laidlaw’sstatedaimsweresimpletobuildthegreatestbusinessinNewZealand,tosimplifyeverytransaction,toeliminatealldelays,toonlysellgoodsitwouldpaythecustomertobuy.Thisyear,the thatbeganasamail-orderbusinessandnowemploys3500staffacross58storesturns100.Itscentenarywillbecelebratedwiththereleaseofabookandmajorcommunityfundraisingprojects,tobeannouncednextweek.Hunter,whoiswritingthecentenaryhistory,"comingtoaFarmersstoreonceaweekwasapartoftheNewZealandoflife".By1960,oneinevery10peoplehadanaccountwiththe Itwasthecewhereteenagegirlsshoppedfortheirfirstbra,wherenewlywedspurchasedtheirfirstdinnersets,wherefirstpaychequeswereusedtopayoffhirepurchasefurniture,whereSantaparadedeveryD.GaryBlumenthal’smothershoppedthere,andsodoeshe.ThefondestmemoryfortheRotoruaresident?"WewereonholidayinAuckland...IdecidedthatuponthelookouttowerontopoftheFarmersbuildingwouldbeauniquecetofittheringonmynewfiancée’sfinger."Thelovebirds,whohadtowaitfor"anannoyingyouth"toleavethetowerbeforetheycouldenjoytheirengagementkiss,celebratetheir50thweddinginJune.E.Farmers,saysHunter,hasalwayshadaheart.This,froma1993North&Southinterviewwithaformerboardchairman,RawdonBusfield:"OnedayIwasintheHobsonStreetshopandIsawawomanwithtwosmallchildren.Theywerecleanandtidilydressed,butpoor,youcouldl.Thatweekwehadaspecialonabigbarofchocolateforoneshilling.Iheardthewomansaytoherboy,"no,yourpennywon’tbuythat’.Hewasn’twearingshoes.SoIwentuptotheboyandsaid,"Son,haveyougotyourpenny?’Hehandedittome.Itwashothe’dhaditinhishandforhours.Itookthepennyandgavehimthechocolate."F.Farmerswasoncethehomeofgenteeltearooms,children’sygroundsandanannualsaleofcelebrationforbirthdayofHectortheParrot(thestoremascotdied,aged131,inthe1970shisstuffedremainsstilloccupyprideofceatthe ’sheadoffice).YoucouldbuyhousesfromFarmers.Itssaddlefactorydthearmed s,anditsuprightgrandoverstrungpianosoffered"theacmeofvalue"accordingtothoseearlycatalogueshand-drawnbyRobertLaidlawhimself.WalkthroughaFarmersstoretodayandgethitbybrightlightsandbigbrands.ItsAlbanybranchhouses16internationalcosmeticscompanies.Itbuysapproximay500rs,andabout30%ofthosearelocallyG."Eight,10yearsago,"sayscurrentchiefexecutiveRodMcDermott,"lotsofbrandswouldn’tpartnerwithus.Thestoreswerequitedistressed.Wewerefirstpricepointfocused,weweren’tfashionfocused."Removetherose-tintednostalgia,andFarmersis,quitesimply,abusiness,ngbusinessinhardtimes.DancingwiththeStarspresenterCandyLanelaunchesaclothingline?"Weputatrialon,andwethoughtitwasreallylovely,buttheuptakewasn’twhatwethoughtitwouldbe.It’sgottobewhatthecustomerwants,"saysMcDermott.H.Heacknowledgesretailerssufferinarecession:"We’recelebrating100yearsbecausewecanandbecauseweshould."Farmersalmostdidn’tpullthroughoneeconomiccrisis.Bythemid1980s,ithadstoresacrossthecountry.IthadacquiredtheSouthIsland’sCalderMackaychainofstoresandboughtoutHaywrights.Then,withsalestop$375million,itwastakenoverbyChaseCorporation.LincolnLaidlaw,nowaged88,andthesonofthe ’sfounder,remembersthedarkdaysfollowingthestockmarketcrashandthecollapseofChase."Ithink,once,FarmerswaslikeabigfamilyandallofthepeoplewhoworkedforitfelttheywerebuildingsomethingwhichwouldultimaybetotheirbenefitandtothebenefitofNewZealand...thenthebusinesswasbeingdividedupandsothatkindoffamilysituationwasdispelledandithasn’tbeenrecovered."Foraturbulentfewyears,thestoreswerecontrolled,firstbyaconsortiumofAustralianbanksandlaterDeka,theMaoriDevelopmentCorporationandFoodlandAssociated.In2003,itwentbackto"family"ownership,withthepurchasebytheJamesPascoeGroup,ownedbyDavidandAnneNormanthelatterbeingthegreat-granddaughterofJamesPascoe,whosefirstbusinessinterestwasjewellery.I."Sheerpowerofthebrand,"saysMcDermott,"pulledFarmersthroughandnowwe’re ingthebranditusedtobeagain."Farmerswerethethat,duringWorldWarII,toppedupthewagesofanystaffmemberdisadvantagedbyoverseasservice.RobertLaidlawaChristianwhocametohisfaithata1902evangelisticserviceinconcludedhisoriginalmissionstatementwiththewords,"allatit,alwaysatit,winssuccess".Nextweek,58Farmersstoresacrossthecountrywillannouncethelocalcharitiestheywillraisefundsforintheircentenarycelebrationeverythingfromguidedogservicestohospicestovolunteerfirebrigadeswillbenefit.Everydollarraisedbythecommunitywillbeby ."It’sliketherebirthofanicon,"says題型分布與4題型分布與4題+7題+3LEARNINGBYLearningTheoryisrootedintheworkofIvanPavlov,thefamousscientistwhodiscoveredand edtheprincipleserninghowanimals(humansincluded)learninthe1900s.Twobasickindsoflearningorconditioningoccur,oneofwhichisfamouslyknownastheclassicalconditioning.Classicalconditioninghappenswhenananimallearnstoassociateaneutralstimulus(signal)withastimulusthathasintrinsicmeaningbasedonhowcloselyintimethetwostimuliarepresented.Theclassicexampleofclassicalconditioningisadog’sabilitytoassociatethesoundofabell(somethingthatoriginallyhasnomeaningtothedog)withthepresentationoffood(somethingthathasalotofmeaningforthedog)afewmomentslater.Dogsareabletolearntheassociationbetweenbellandfood,andwillsalivateimmediayafterhearingthebelloncethisconnectionhasbeenmade.Yearsoflearningresearchhaveledtothecreationofahighlypreciselearningtheorythatcanbeusedtounderstandandpredicthowandunderwhatcircumstancesmostanyanimalwilllearn,includinghumanbeings,andeventuallyhelppeoplefigureouthowtochangetheirbehaviors.Rolemodelsareapopularnotionforguidingchilddevelopment,butrecentyearsveryinterestingresearchhasbeendoneonlearningbyexampleinotheranimals.Ifthesubjectofanimallearningistaughtmuchintermsofclassicaloroperantconditioning,itcestoomuchemphasisonhowweallowanimalstolearnandnotenoughonhowtheyareequippedtolearn.ToteachacourseofmineIhavebeendipprofitablyintoaveryinterestingandaccessiblecompilationofpapersonsociallearninginm ls,includingchimpsandhumanchildren,editedbyHeyesandGalef(1996).TheresearchreportedinonepaperstartedwithaschoolfieldtriptoIsraeltoapine wheremanypineconeswerediscovered,strippedtothecentralcore.Sotheinvestigationstartedwithnoweightytheoreticalintent,butwasdirectedatfindingoutwhatwaseatingthenutritiouspineseedsandhowtheymanagedtogetthemoutofthecones.Theculpritprovedtobetheversatileandathleticblackrat(Rattusrattus)andthetechniquewastobiteeachconescaleoffatitsbase,insequencefrombasetotipfollowingthespiralgrowthpatternofthecone.Urbanblackratswerefoundtolacktheskillandwereunabletolearnitevenifhousedwithexperiencedconestrippers.However,infantsofurbanmotherscrossfosteredtostrippermothersacquiredtheskill,whereasinfantsofstrippermothersfosteredbyanurbanmothercouldnot.Clearlytheskillhadtobelearnedfromthemother.Furtherelegantexperimentsshowedthatna?veadultscoulddeveloptheskilliftheywereprovidedwithconesfromwhichthefirstcompletespiralofscaleshadbeenremoved;ratherlikeournewphotocopierwhichyoucanworkouthowtouseoncesomeonehasshownyouhowtoswitchito