EuropeanCulture:AnIntroductionDivisionThreeTheMiddleAgesTheMiddleAgesⅠ.GeneralIntroductionⅡ.ManorandChurchⅢ.LearningandScienceⅣ.LiteratureⅤ.ArtandArchitecture

I.GeneralIntroductionInEuropeanhistory,thethousand-yearperiodfollowingthefalloftheWesternRomanEmpireinthefifthcenturyiscalledtheMiddleAges.I.GeneralIntroductionBetweenancienttimesandmoderntimes.WesternEurope:asceneofwarsandinvasions傳統上認為這是歐洲文明史上比較貧乏的時期。歐洲的封建社會主要經歷了三個發展階段：公元5世紀至11世紀，這是歐洲封建社會的形成時期；公元11世紀至15世紀，歐洲處于封建制度的鼎盛時期；公元15世紀至17世紀，歐洲的封建經濟逐漸瓦解，開始從封建制度向資本主義制度過渡。

I.GeneralIntroductionFeudalismwastheprimarypoliticalsystemoftheMiddleAges.TheexistenceoffeudalismisoneofthemostimportantfactsabouttheMiddleAges.ItisthiswhichmakesthegovernmentofthatperiodsodifferentfromthegovernmentsofGreeceandRome,andalsofromthegovernmentsoftoday.Inthecompletedsystem,thekingofthelandstoodatthetop;thenunderhimwerehisvassals,andunderthemweretheirvassals,—andsoonuntilthepeasants.Theywerelandless“serfs”andhadtosupportalltheclassesabovethem.TheMiddleAgesisalsocalledthe“AgeofFaith”：DuringtheMedievaltimestherewasnocentralgovernmenttokeeptheorder.TheonlyorganizationthatseemedtouniteEuropewastheChristianchurch.Itcontinuedtogainwidespreadpowerandinfluence.IntheLateMiddleAges,almosteveryoneinwesternEuropewasaChristianandamemberofChristianchurch.Christianitytooktheleadinpolitics,law,art,andlearningforhundredsofyears.Itshapedpeople’slives.II.Manor

andChurch

Feudalism

TheChurch

TheCrusades

FeudalismFeudalisminEuropewasmainlyasystemoflandholding–asystemofholdinglandinexchangeformilitaryservice.ThegrowthofthefeudalsystemwasgoingoneverywhereinWesternEuropefromabouttheeighthtotheeleventhcenturies.Itgrewslowly,butitgrewsurely.FeudalismwasderivedfromtheLatin“feudum”,meaningagrantofland.GrowthofFeudalismWhenthewesternRomanEmpiregrewweak,peoplelivedinconstantdangerofattacksfrominvadersandrobbers.Ownersofsmallfarmssoughtprotectionfromlargeland-owners,bygivingthemlandandservices.Inreturnthelargelandownerspromisedtoprotectthelandlesspeasantsandtheirfamilies.Thenin732CharlesMartel,aFrankishrulergavehissoldersestatesknownasfiefsasarewardfortheirservice.After800,thekingsinEuropewereusuallyveryweak.Somenoblesgrewmorepowerfulthantheking,andbecameindependentrulers.TheManorThecentreofmedievallifeunderfeudalismwasthemanor.Manorswerefoundedonthefiefsofthelords.Somelordsownedonlyonemanor;othersownedmany.Theylivedinamanorhouse.Bythetwelfthcenturymanorhousesweremadeofstoneanddesignedasfortresses.Theycametobecalledcastles.KnighthoodandCodeofChivalryAlmostallnobleswereknightsintheMedievaldays.Butnoonewasbornaknight.Anoblebeganhiseducationasapageatseven.Hewastaughttosayhisprayers,learnedgoodmannersandranerrandsfortheladies.Ataboutfourteen,thepagebecameasquireorassistanttoaknightwhobecamehismaster.Hewastaughtthedutiesofaknightandpracticedusingasward,lanceandshield.Hewentintobattlewithhismaster.Ifthesquireprovedtobeagoodfighter,hewouldbemadeaknightataspecialceremonyknownasdubbing.Asaknight,hewaspledgedtoprotecttheweak,tofightforthechurch,tobeloyaltohislordandtorespectwomenofnoblebirth.Theseruleswereknownascodeofchivalry.

TheChurchTheOrganizationofChurchChurchFatherandEarlyMonasticismThePowerandInfluenceoftheCatholicChurchAfter1054,theChurchwasdividedintotheRomanCatholicChurchandtheEasternOrthodoxChurch.InordertodevelopacivilizationbasedonChristianity,theCatholicChurchmadeLatintheofficiallanguageandhelpedtopreserveandpassontheheritageoftheRomanEmpire.TheOrganizationofChurchTheCatholicChurchwasahighlycentralizedanddisciplinedinternationalorganization.Pope(supremehead)ReligiousOitarymonastic2.livedinmonasteries(abbeys)governedbyabbotsArchbishops(province)CollegeofCardinals1.electedpope2.servedasadvisors3.nextinpowertopopeBishops(diocese)Priests(parish)LayMembersofCatholicChurchChurchFatherandEarlyMonasticismInthebeginningthecontroversywasmainlyovertheplaceofChristinthetrinity--Power(theFather),wisdom(theSon)andLove(theHolySpirit).圣父，圣子與圣靈AnotablechampionofearlymonasticismwasSt.Jerome,whotranslatedintoLatinbothOldandNewTestamentsfromtheHebrewandGreekoriginals.ThemostimportantofalltheleadersofChristianthoughtwasAugustineofHippowholivedinNorthAfricainthefifthcentury.“TheConfession”and“TheCityofGod”byhimaremasterpiecesofworldrenown.AnothergreatearlymonkwasSt.BenedictwhofoundedBenedictineRuleinabout529A.D.ThePowerandInfluenceoftheCatholicChurchUnderfeudalism,peopleofwesternEuropeweremainlydividedintothreeclasses:

clergy,lordsandpeasants.TheMedievalChurchwasthecentreofdailylifeinthecountryandtownalike,andithadapartinallimportantevents.TheCrusadesTheCrusadeswereaseriesofreligiouslysanctionedmilitarycampaigns,wagedbymuchofRomanCatholicEurope.EightchiefCrusades:FirstCrusade-1096-1099SecondCrusade-1147-1149ThirdCrusade-1189-1192FourthCrusade-1202-1204FifthCrusade-1218-1221SixthCrusade-1228-1229SeventhCrusade-1248-1254EighthCrusade-1270ConsequencesoftheCrusades

TheybroughttheEastintoclosercontactwiththeWest,andgreatlyinfluencedthehistoryofEurope.Crusadeshelpedtobreakdownfeudalism.Thecrusadesalsoresultedinrenewingpeople’sinterestinlearningandinvention.

Ⅲ.LearningandScience

CharlemagneandCarolingianRenaissanceAlfredtheGreatandWessexCentreofLearningSt.ThomasAquinasandScholasticismRogerBaconandExperimentalScienceCharlemagneandCarolingianRenaissanceCharlemagne查理曼大帝(742-814),amongmanyotherthingshedid,encouragedlearningbysettingupmonasteryschools,givingsupporttoscholarsandsettingscribestoworkcopingvariousancientbooks.他創造了加洛林王朝，在行政、司法、軍事制度及經濟生產等方面都有杰出的建樹，并大力發展文化教育事業。是他引入了歐洲文明，他被后世尊稱為“歐洲之父”。TheresultofCharlemagne’seffortisusuallycalledthe“CarolingianRenaissance”AlfredtheGreatandWessexCentreofLearningAlfredtheGreat

(849-899),ruleroftheAnglo-SaxonkingdomofWessex,alearnedman,worriedaboutthedisappearanceoflearningandmadeWessextheAnglo-Saxonculturalcentrebyintroducingteachersandscholars,foundingnewmonasteries,andpromotingtranslationsintothevernacularfromLatinworks.St.ThomasAquinasandScholasticismSt.ThomasAquinas圣托馬斯阿奎那

(1225-1274)wasanItalianPhilosopherandtheologian,thesupremefigureinscholasticism,themedievalphilosophicalefforttoharmonizefaithandreason.Works:SummaContraVentiles,SummaTheologicaRogerBaconandExperimentalScienceRogerBacon羅吉爾·培根

(about1220-1292),amonk,wasoneoftheearliestadvocatesofscientificresearch.Hecalledforcarefulobservationandexperimentation.Work:Opusmaius《自然科學總則》NotFrancisBacon（1561--1626）IV.Literature

NationalEpics

DanteAlighieriandTheDivineComedy

GeofferyChaucerandTheCanterburyTalesNationalEpicsNationalepicreferstotheepicwritteninvernacularlanguages--thatis,thelanguagesofvariousnationalstatesthatcameintobeingintheMiddleAges.a.Beowulfb.SongofRolandBeowulfBeowulfistheconventionaltitleofanOldEnglishheroicepicpoemconsistingof3182alliterativelonglines,setinScandinavia,commonlycitedasoneofthemostimportantworksofAnglo-Saxonliterature.ItscompositionbyananonymousAnglo-Saxonpoetisdatedbetweenthe8thandtheearly11thcentury.BeowulfInthepoem,Beowulf,aherooftheGeats,battlesthreeantagonists:Grendel,whohasbeenattackingtheresidentwarriorsofthemeadhallofHroegar(thekingoftheDanes),Grendel'smother,andanunnameddragon.Afterthefirsttwovictories,BeowulfgoeshometoGeatlandinSwedenandbecomeskingoftheGeats.Thelastfighttakesplacefiftyyearslater.Inthisfinalbattle,Beowulfisfatallywounded.Afterhisdeath,hisservantsburyhiminatumulusinGeatland.DanteAlighieriandTheDivineComedyDanteAlighieri但丁(1265-1321)，oneofthepioneersofRenaissance,wasthegreatestpoetofItalyandalsoaprosewriter,literarytheorist,moralphilosopheraswellaspoliticalthinker.恩格斯評價說：“封建的中世紀的終結和現代資本主義紀元的開端，是以一位大人物為標志的，這位人物就是意大利人但丁，他是中世紀的最后一位詩人，同時又是新時代的最初一位詩人”。Masterpiece:TheDivineComedy這部作品由《地獄》、《煉獄》和《天堂》三部分構成，各篇長短大致相等，通過作者與地獄、煉獄及天國中各種著名人物的對話，反映出中古文化領域的成就和一些重大的問題。在這部長達一萬四千余行的史詩中，但丁強調人的“自由意志”，堅決反對中世紀的蒙昧主義、宗教宿命論，抨擊教會的貪婪腐化和封建統治的黑暗殘暴，歌頌有遠大抱負和堅毅剛強的英雄豪杰，表達了執著地追求真理的思想。從中也可隱約窺見文藝復興時期人文主義思想的曙光，對歐洲后世的詩歌創作有極其深遠的影響。

GeofferyChaucerandTheCanterburyTalesChaucer喬叟(1340-1400)wasanEnglishpoet,afull-blownflowerofEnglishmedievalliterature.TheCan