國際貿易進出口實務

PracticalInternationalTradeCourseIntroductionTeachingfocuses：Fundamentalsofinternationaltrade:basicconcepts,principlesininternationaltrade,internationalrulesandpracticesPracticalknowledge:likeestablishingcontract,arranginginsurance,transportation,payment,inspection,etcCasestudy:throughcasestudy,detailedproblemsandtipswillbediscussedTeachingarrangementsHomeworkFormationoffinalscoreFinalexam60%Classperformance40%(homework70%+classdiscussion15%+attendance15%)HomeworkandExamKnowledgeaboutinternationaltradeSomefiguresaboutChina’sinternationaltrade.2004totaltradingvolume$1.15trillion

2007totaltradingvolume$2.17trillion2010totaltradingvolume$2.97trillionBiggestTradingPartners：EU,theU.S.,Japan,ASEAN,HongKongChapter1：InternationalTradeInternationalTradeReasonsforinternationaltradeBenefitsofinternationaltradeProblemsininternationaltradeInternationalTradeDefinitionofInternationalTradeInternationaltradereferstotheexchangeofgoodsandservicesbetweennations.Itistheexchangeofgoodsandservicesproducedinonecountryforgoodsandservicesproducedinanothercountry.QuestionSupposethatanAmerican-basedmultinationalcompanysetuptwosubsidiariesinChina.Theparentcompanysignedasalescontractwiththesubsidiaries,whichstipulatedthattheparentcompanywouldmakethedeliverytothesubsidiaryinShanghai,whichwouldforwardsomeofthegoodstothesubsidiaryatChengdu.Question:isthetransactionbetweentheparentcompanyandthetwosubsidiariesconsideredinternationaltrade?ReasonsforInternationalTradeResourcereasonsEconomicreasonsPoliticalreasonsInnovationandpeople’sneed,politicalreasonsResourcereasonsFavorableclimaticconditionsandterrainNaturalresourcesSkilledworkersCapitalresourcesFavorablegeographicallocationandtransportcostsInsufficientproductionFavorableclimaticconditionsandterrainClimaticconditionsandterrainareveryimportantforagriculturalproduces.Thisdifferenceenablessomecountriestogrowcertainplantsandleavesothercountrieswiththeonlychoicetoimporttheproducestheyconsume.Examples咖啡產地咖啡是一種茜草科（Rubia）常綠植物，生長在熱帶(tropical)和亞熱帶(sub-tropical)地區，５－８年收獲，盛產咖啡豆的國家首屬巴西(Brazil)，其產量約占３０％，占全世界產量的第一位，其次是哥倫比亞(Colombia)，占１０％，因此，咖啡有六成在中南美，（中國云南，海南有少量生產）。被認為是咖啡頂級品的藍山咖啡(BlueMountainCoffee)，產于牙買加(Jamaica)西部的藍山山脈，因而得名。藍山海拔2256公尺，咖啡樹栽種于1000米左右的險峻山坡地帶。牙買加島屬熱帶雨林氣候，四季和晝夜溫差不大，年均氣溫為26C，年均最高氣溫為31C，最低為21.7C。7－9月為高溫季節，氣溫在30－34.5C之間，最高可達36－37C。FoodWorldmajoragriculturalproductsexportingcountries:TheU.S.,Canada,France,Australia,Argentina,China,Brazil,SouthAfrica,ThailandNaturalResourcesMiddleEast:crudeoilSouthAfrica:白金platinum、黃金gold、鉻chromium;

Chile,Peru,Zaire:copperBahamas:touristresortKorea:ginsengSkilledworkersUS,JapanandwesternEuropeancountrieshaveskilledworkerswhoareabletomanufacturesophisticatedequipmentandmachinerysuchasjetaircraftsandcomputers.Animportantpartoftechnologytransferisthetrainingoftechnicalworkers.SkilledworkersSwisswatch提起瑞士，人們很快會聯想到OMEGA、Rolex等馳名世界的名貴鐘表，瑞士的鐘表工業是從家庭手工業(cottageindustry)開始的，鐘表制造技術世代相傳，這使得瑞士的鐘表工業能夠得到保持和發展。

SkilledworkersGermancartechnicianChinesechefIndianITtalents(Indiaisthe2ndlargestsoftwareexporter)CapitalresourcesDevelopingcountriesneedtomodernizetheirindustriesandeconomieswithadvancedmachinery,equipmentandplantthattheyarenotyetabletomanufacturebecauseofthelackofcapital.Thishasgivenrisetotheneedforinternationaltrade.FavorablegeographicallocationandtransportcostsCountriesdeveloptradebecausetheyareclosetoeachother.Sino-JapanesetradeUS-CanadaEUSomecountriesbecomebigtradingcountriesbecausetheyhavenaturalharborsRotterdaminHollandSingapore

HongKongTaiwanSingapore新加坡位于馬來半島(Malaya)最南端，領土由新加坡島和附近54個小島組成，地理位置十分重要，向稱“東方十字路口”。扼守著馬六甲海峽(straits)入口處的航行要道。國際航運、航空和貿易中心新加坡以此為基礎，從鄰國大量進口各類初級產品(rawproducts)，匯總、分級、包裝后再行出口，形成了以轉口貿易(entrepottrade)和航運業(shipping)為主體的獨特經濟類型。新加坡四面環海，以煉油(oilrefining)和造船(shipbuildingandrepairing)為核心的工業部門具有世界意義。RotterdamKnownasthe“GatewaytoEurope”,theNetherlandsdominatesageographiclocationasoptimalasTaiwan.ItliesintheeconomicandtradinghubofEurope.Over55%ofthecargoeshandledinRotterdamaredestinedforotherEuropeannations.InsufficientproductionSomecountriescannotproduceenoughitemstheyneed.UK:only5%ofitspopulationisengagedinagricultureandtheymainlygrowfruitsandflowers.Asaresult,theyhavetoimport60%ofitstotalagriculturalconsumption.China:insufficientwheat,crudeoilproductionTwoImportantPrinciplesinForeignTradeAbsoluteAdvantageComparativeAdvantageBasicconceptsOpportunitycost機會成本Labortheoryofvalue勞動價值論OpportunitycostOpportunitycostistheamountofanothergoodsorservicesthatmightotherwisehavebeenproduced.Theeconomiststhinktheprovisionofproductionelementsislimited,andpeoplecannotproducegoodsunlimitedly.

Inthissituation,iftheproductionelementsareusedinproducingproductA,thentheproductionofproductBhastobegivenup.Ifthisisthecase,thebenefitsbroughtbyproducingBistheopportunitycostofproducingA.Undertheguidanceofopportunitycost,limitedresourcescanbeallocatedtoyieldmaximumprofit.LabortheoryofvalueForclassicaleconomists,thevalueofgoodsisdeterminedbythecostofproduction,withtherelativecostofproductionofvariousgoodsrevealedbythelaborcontent.Forinstance,supposethatgoodsAhasalaborcontentof2hours,butgoodsBrequires10hoursoflaborforitsproduction.TheclassicaleconomiststhoughtthatgoodsBwouldbe5timesasvaluableasgoodsA.AbsoluteadvantageAdamSmithAnInquiryintotheNatureandCausesoftheWealthofNationsin1776.ANation’swealthwasreflectedinitsproductivecapacity(theabilitytoproducefinalgoodsandservices)Absoluteadvantage:LowerrealcostclothPerfumeFrance10yds./hr30bottles/hr.Australia30yds./hr.15bottles/hr.Absoluteadvantage2.Specializationwouldgenerateproductivitygains3.FreeenvironmentComparativeadvantageDavidRicardoOnthePrinciplesofPoliticalEconomyandTaxationin18171.Ifacountrydidnotpossessabsoluteadvantageinanyproduct,couldit(orwouldit)trade?2.Evenifacountrypossessedabsoluteadvantageintwoproducts,itstillmustberelativelyefficientthantheothercountryintheproductionofonecommoditythantheother.

ComparativeadvantageIneconomics,thelawofcomparativeadvantagereferstotheabilityofaparty(anindividual,afirm,oracountry)toproduceaparticulargoodorserviceataloweropportunitycostthananotherparty.ComparisonRice

copperRatioofcostsFrance2R./hr4C/hr.1R:2CAustralia1R./hr.1C/hr.1R:1CAftertrade:

CopperCopper

France4C*1(=4R./hr)4C/hr.

2R./hr4C/hr.

RiceRiceAustralia1R./hr.1R*2(=2C/hr)

1R./hr1C/hrComparisonTextiles

PerfumeRatioofcostsFrance30yds./hr60bottles/hr.1T:2PAustralia15yds./hr.20bottles/hr.1T:4/3PAftertrade:

PerfumePerfume

France60P*3/4T(=45yds./hr)60bottles/hr.

30yds./hr60bottles/hr.

TextilesTextilesAustralia15yds./hr.15T*2P(=30bottles/hr)

15yds./hr20bottles/hrInrealtransaction,theexchangeratiocannotbeasabove,becausethetwocountrieshavetwodifferentratios.Thereshouldbeonecommonratio.Rice

copperRatioofcostsFrance2<X<441R:2CAustralia11<Y<21R:1CX/4=1/YorXY=4IfX=3,thenY=1.33;ifY=1.5,thenX=2.67Inbothcases,theygainedbytradingwiththeotherparty.PoliticalreasonsPoliticalobjectivescansometimesoutweigheconomicconsiderationsbetweencountries.Onecountrymighttradeorrestricttradewithanothergovernmentfordifferentpoliticalreasons.U.S.-JapantradeTradebetweenChinaandlessdevelopedcountriesThebenefitsofinternationaltradeCheapergoodsGreatervarietyofgoodscomefrommorecountries;Widermarketwithincreasingnumberoftradingpartners;Growthofeconomy…………Cpetitionintheworldmarketisconstant,whichmakesthepriceevenlower.3.HigherqualitywithsamepriceisstillacostadvantageGreatervarietyofgoodsGreatervarietyofbothcapitalgoodsandconsumergoodsBenefits:IncreasethequalityoflifeIncreasetheproductivityofindustriesWidermarketWidermarketenableseconomiesofscaleItextendsthelifeofproducts.GrowthofeconomyForeigntradecreatesjobsthathavebothpoliticalandeconomicsignificance.Forinstance,inHollandthoseforeigninvestorshavehiredupto350,000Dutchnativestowork,accountingfor20%ofthetotalworkforceofthenation.在我國，每出口一萬美元的農產品，就將帶動20人的就業。2005年我國出口農產品貿易達到271億美元，這就意味著，有5400萬農民的就業依賴我們的農產品出口ProblemsininternationaltradeTraderestrictionsCulturalproblemsMonetaryconversionTraderestrictionsReasonsfortraderestrictionsKindsofrestrictionsReasonsfortraderestrictionsDiversifiedandindependenteconomyProtectionofvitalindustryInfantindustryprotectionEmploymentprotectionPoliticalreasonsProtectionofvitalindustryVitalindustriesareofvitalimportancetoacountry,likeagriculture,transportation,energy,telecommunication.Britishtextileindustry(18th-19thcentury)Japan’ssteelindustry(afterWWII)ITindustryPillarindustriesJapanreliesonindustriesofcar,electronics,optics,computerandsoonChinareliesonindustriesofsteel,car,oilrefining,electronics,textiles,shipbuilding,nonferrousmetal,logistics,etc.Informationsecurity微軟Windows操作系統和微軟IE瀏覽器是當今各國網絡化的代名詞，尤其是在國內，Windows操作系統占據了90%以上的市場份額。當一個國家的所有領域都完全信息化、網絡化的時候，誰壟斷了PC的操作系統和IE瀏覽器也就意味著誰實質上掌控了這個國家的經濟、政治命脈。人類的戰爭經歷了冷兵器時代、熱兵器時代、機械化時代、核武器時代，而今正處于向核威懾下的信息化非接觸戰爭時代轉化，這就意味著以后的戰爭完全就是國家信息網絡安全的較量，完全是幕后信息戰的較量。也正是出于這種政治、軍事國防等國家安全方面的考慮，在去年新加坡國防部已經把兩萬臺個人電腦由微軟的操作平臺轉換到了開源軟件上；中國、日本和韓國也就共同開發應用在Linux平臺上的應用軟件達成了一致協議。歐盟委員會于08年2月再次對微軟公司開出8.99億歐元（合13.5億美元）的罰單，這是歐盟歷史上對單個企業開出的最大一筆反壟斷罰單，到目前為止，歐盟已對微軟處以總計16.8億歐元的罰款。分析師稱，這項罰款對微軟“完全沒有任何財務性影響，即使微軟一天在財務報表中突然蒸發了13.5億美元，對其未來增長也毫無壓力?！盜nfantindustryprotectionThereisaninfantindustryargumentwhichmaintainsthatanewindustryneedstobeprotecteduntilthelaborforceistrained,theproductiontechniquesaremasteredandtheoperationbecomeslargeenoughtoenjoytheeconomiesofscaletocompetewithamatureindustry.ChinaChina’sexhibitionindustryChina’ssoftwareindustryChina’sfinanceindustryChina’scarindustryChina’scarindustry2008年我國生產汽車934.5萬輛，超過美國位居世界第二。日本生產汽車1156.4萬輛，連續3年位居世界第一。美國汽車產量為868.1萬輛，位居世界第三。德國604.1萬輛，位居第4。韓國汽車產量為382.7萬輛，連續4年位居世界第五。EmploymentprotectionDomesticjobsneedtobeprotectedfromcheapforeignlabor,esp.labor-intensiveindustry,suchastextileindustry.2005worldtextiletradequotawascanceled,asaresultmillionsofworkerswereunemployedworldwide.PoliticalreasonsAntagonisticcountrieswillbantradeAcountrymayrestricttradewithanothercountrybecauseofdomesticpoliticalaffairs,likeunemployment,economyslowdown,presidentialelectionetc.KindsofrestrictionsTariffBarriersAtariffisadutyorfeeleviedongoodsbeingimportedorexported.Non-tariffBarriersAllbarriersotherthantariffsthatinsomemannerimpedetradeorraisethecostoftrading,whichincludesinformalmeasures,shouldbeincludedamongnon-tariffbarriers.Functionsoftariff1.Toincreasethepriceofgoodstomakedomesticgoodsmorecompetitive2.Toraisetaxrevenuesforagovernment3.Toprotectinfantindustries.4.Toadjustindustrystructure.5.Toadjusttradebalanceofacountry.Formsofduties1.accordingtothepurposesofimportduties2.accordingtothetimeofcollection3.importsurtax4.accordingtothemethodsusedinimposingimportduty5.accordingtothedifferenttariffratesappliedPurposesRevenuetariffItiscollectedmainlyforgovernmentrevenuerelativelylowProtectiontariffItiscollectedinordertoprotectthedomesticmarket.VeryhighMethodsSpecificduty

（從量稅）Perunit,pound,kilo,etc.Advaloremduty(從價稅)Mixedtariff/compoundduty

US$1perbottleand20%advaloremAlternativedutyUS$10perbottleor22%advaloremTimeImportdutyItiscollectedwhengoodsareimported.Exportduty

Itiscollectedwhengoodsareexported,whichisusedtocontroltheexportofanythingwithnationalimportance.Differentrates1.PreferentialdutiesAlowertariffisgrantedtoimportfromcountriesthataregivenpreferentialtreatment.WithinNAFTA,China-ASEAN2.

Dutiesundergeneralizedsystemofpreferences(GSP)3.MFNduties4.GeneraldutiesDutiesunderGSPGSP:Alargenumberofdevelopedcountriespermitduty-freeentryofaselectedlistofproductsimportedfromparticulardevelopingcountries.ThreeprinciplesofGSP:1.Generalized:allmanufacturedorsemi-manufacturedgoodsfromLDCs;2.Non-discriminatory:toallLDCs3.Non-reciprocalGSPgivingcountriesBritain,France,Germany,Italy,Luxemburg,Belgium,Ireland,DenmarkGreece,Portugal,Spain,Japan,NorwayNewZealand,Australia,Switzerland,Sweden,Finland,Austria,Canada,PolandContentsofGSP1.Countryeligibilitycriteria:aselectedlistofcountries(OPECandcommunistcountries)2.Producteligibilitycriteria:“Importsensitive”items3.Competitionneedcriterion:individualproduct.4.Graduationpolicy5.RulesoforiginRulesoforiginRuleofdirectconsignmentSubstantialtransformationCertificateoforiginMFNdutiesAnationenteringintoatarifftreatythatincludestheMFNtreatmentisrequiredtoextendtoallsignatoriesanytariffconcessionsgrantedtoanyparticipatingcountries.SimplifytariffbargainingandincreasethelikelihoodoftariffreductionAllmembersofWTOareentitledtoMFNtreatment.Importsurtax

Importsurtaxisadditionaltoimportduty,itistemporaryincopingwithinternationalpaymentdifficulties,maintainingbalanceoftradeandpreventingdumping,subsidy,andisdiscriminatoryagainstaparticularcountry.Countervailingduty(反補貼稅)Anti-dumpingduty（反傾銷稅）Variablelevy(差額稅)CountervailingdutiesItiscollectedagainstbounty,grantorsubsidyduringproduction,transportandexportetc.Anti-dumpingdutiesIscollectedwhenimportingcountrybelievesthatthereisdumping(anotuniversallydefinedconceptthatcanmeanthesellingpriceinaforeigncountryisbelowdomesticsellingprice,worldmarketpriceorproductioncost.Variablelevy(差價稅)Itiscollectedatthedifferencebetweenworldmarketpricesandthepricesfordomesticproducers.ExportsubsidiesExportsubsidiesrefertogovernmentpaymentandotherextraordinaryeconomicbenefitsprovidedtohomefirms.Highvalue-addedindustriesLinkageindustries:providersofingredientstootherindustriesIndustrieswithprospectsforrapidgrowthE.g.AgriculturalsubsidiesofwesternEuropeDefinitionofsubsidyAfinancialcontribution:

directtransfersoffunds(e.g.grants,loans),potentialtransfersoffundsorliabilities(e.g.loanguarantees)Byagovernmentoranypublicbodywithintheterritoryofamember:

e.g.state-ownedcompaniesConfersabenefit:ThreecategoriesofsubsidiesProhibitedsubsidies(redlight)A.contingentuponexportperformance(exportsubsidies)B.contingentupontheuseofdomesticinsteadofimportedgoods(importsubstitutionsubsidies)Actionablesubsidies(yellow)Productionsubsidiesaresubjecttochallenge;whethertheycauseadverseeffectstotheinterestofanothercountry.Non-actionablesubsidies(green)Non-actionablesubsidies1.Assistanceforresearchactivitiesconductedbyfirmsorbyhighereducationorresearchestablishmentonacontractbasiswithfirms.2.Assistancetodisadvantagedregions3.Assistancetopromoteadaptationofexistingfacilitiestonewenvironmentalrequirementsimposedbylaw/orregulationswhichresultsingreaterfinancialburdenonfirms;theassistanceisone-timenon-recurringmeasureandislimitedto20%ofthecostofadaptation.

Anti-dumpingdutiesWTOmemberscanimposeanti-dumpingmeasures,ifWTOmembercanconfirmA.thatdumpingisoccurringB.thatthedomesticindustryproducingthelikeproductissufferingmaterialinjuryorthreatofmaterialinjury,andC.thatthereisacasuallinkbetweenthetwo.TypesofdumpingPersistentdumping持久性傾銷Intermittentdumping

間歇性傾銷Predatorydumping掠奪性傾銷Sporadicdumping偶發性傾銷Non-tariffBarriersQuota

ImportlicenseForeignexchangecontrolStatemonopolyofimportandexportGovernmentprocurementpolicyAdvanceddepositTechnicalbarrierstotrade(TBT)MinimumpriceStatemonopolyFourmaincategoriesCigarettesandalcoholicproductsAgriculturalproductsCrudeoilWeaponsTradingrightsIn1999Chinesefirmswithannualexportvolumesvaluedinexcessof$10millionisallowedtoregisterfortradingrights.Theimportofsomegoodssuchasgrains,cotton,vegetableoils,petroleum,sugar,fertilizers,newspublicationsandrelatedproductscanstillbereservedprimarilyforstatetradingenterprises.ImportSubstitutionPoliciesItconditionsimportorinvestmentapprovalsonwhethertherearecompetingdomesticsuppliersorimposeotherperformancerequirements.Since2001,Chinahasofferedvalue-addedtax(VAT)exemptionsandrebatesforthetypesoffertilizersthatareprimarilyproduceddomestically,butnotforlikeordirectlycompetitiveimportedfertilizersofAmericanproducers.GovernmentprocurementpolicyThispolicystipulatesthatgovernmentorganizationsmustuselocalproductsunlesssomeconditionsaremet.BuyAmericanActUnlessdomesticproductsisonaverage25%(from6%-50%)higherthanforeignprices.AdvanceddepositThisbarrierincreasethecostofimportsbyforcingimporterstodepositapercentageofthetotalvaluesoftheimportsforaperiodoftimewithoutinterestoraverylowinterest.Technicalbarriers

TechnicalStandardsManufacturedindustrialproducts

“ChinaCompulsoryCertification”(orCCC)markAmericanCPSC(ConsumerProductSafetyCommission)2.Health&sanitaryregulationsMainlyforfood,drugsandcosmeticsPackingandlabelingregulations一些發達國家依仗較高的科學技術水平和先進生產檢測設備，以保護環境和人身安全為由限制我國產品進口。歐盟以霉綠素超標為由，限制我國水產品進口，損失達10多萬美元，涉及3000多家企業，40000多名職工受到威脅；日本為阻止我國糧食進口，將我國出口大米的檢測指標由原來的40幾項增加到123項，茶葉檢測指標增加到110項，使出口產品成本大幅提高，企業不能承受這些昂貴的檢測費用，限制了產品出口；歐盟針對我國出口打火機占領市場靠的是價格優勢，以保護兒童安全為由，制定了進口2歐元以下的打火機需安裝防護設施的法案，大大提高出口產品的成本，而失去價格競爭優勢。

PackingandlabelingregulationsSizeoflettersLanguagesusedOrdersinwhichdifferentlanguagesareusedLabelsandmarksetc.MinimumpriceMinimumpriceisthelowestpricesetbyanimportingcountryforimportedgoods.Abanonimportsorsurtaxonimportsbelowtheminimumprice.CustomsandentryproceduresTariffclassificationUnassembledtrucksintotheUSParts4%andvehicle25%H.Scode(HarmonisedSystem)Customsvaluation

MarketvalueTransactionvalueCustomsvaluationExceptions1.Intracompanytransaction,theinvoicepricemightbelowerthanmarketvalue.2.Dumpingsuspected.Quota

Quotaisaquantitativerestrictionorupperlimitintermsofeitherphysicalquantityorvalue.Valuequota/volumequotaGlobalquota/Countryquota

Tariffquota/AbsolutequotaImportLicenseAnimportlicensingsystemrequiresanimportertogetagovernmentpermit(importlicense)beforeimportinggoodsintothecountry.ImportlicensewithquotaImportlicensewithoutquotaForeignexchangecontrolQuantitativeexchangecontrolSystemofmultipleexchangeratesCulturalproblemsLanguage,includingtermsoftransactionCustomsandmannersLocalpoliciesValuesCulturalbarrierABeijingforeigntradecompanyexported50M/TfrozenduckstoIran,anIslamiccountry.However,asthecargoarrivedattheportofdestination,theIranimporterrefusedtotakethedeliveryorpayagainstthedocumentduetothedifferentduckkillingmethod---theexporterhadappliedtotheplierskillingmethodthatisquitedifferentfromtheIslamiccustomofadoptingtheneckcuttingmethod.Whatisthecruxofth