.word可編輯.LinguisticssupplementaryexercisesChapter1IntroductionI.DecidewhethereachofthefollowingstatementsisTrueorFalse:Linguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.Linguisticsstudiesparticularlanguage,notlanguagesingeneral.Ascientificstudyoflanguageisbasedonwhatthelinguistthinks.Inthestudyoflinguistics,hypothesesformedshouldbebasedonlanguagefactsandcheckedagainsttheobservedfacts.Generallinguisticsisgenerallythestudyoflanguageasawhole.Generallinguistics,whichrelatesitselftotheresearchofotherareas,studiesthebasicconcepts,theories,descriptions,modelsandmethodsapplicableinanylinguisticstudy.Phoneticsisdifferentfromphonologyinthatthelatterstudiesthecombinationsofthesoundstoconveymeaningincommunication.Morphologystudieshowwordscanbeformedtoproducemeaningfulsentences.Thestudyofthewaysinwhichmorphemescanbecombinedtoformwordsiscalledmorphology.Syntaxisdifferentfrommorphologyinthattheformernotonlystudiesthemorphemes,butalsothecombinationofmorphemesintowordsandwordsintosentences.Thestudyofmeaninginlanguageisknownassemantics.Bothsemanticsandpragmaticsstudymeanings.Pragmaticsisdifferentfromsemanticsinthatpragmaticsstudiesmeaningnotin專業(yè).專注.word可編輯.isolation,butincontext.Socialchangescanoftenbringaboutlanguagechanges.Sociolinguisticsisthestudyoflanguageinrelationtosociety.Modernlinguisticsismostlyprescriptive,butsometimesdescriptive.Modernlinguisticsisdifferentfromtraditionalgrammar.Adiachronicstudyoflanguageisthedescriptionoflanguageatsomepointintime.Modernlinguisticsregardsthewrittenlanguageasprimary,notthewrittenlanguage.ThedistinctionbetweencompetenceandperformancewasproposedbyF.deSaussure.Fillineachofthefollowingblankswithonewordwhichbeginswiththelettergiven:Chomskydefines“competence”astheidealuser'skoftherulesofhislanguage.Languereferstothealinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunitywhiletheparoleistheconcreteuseoftheconventionsandapplicationoftherules.Disoneofthedesignfeaturesofhumanlanguagewhichreferstothephenomenonthatlanguageconsistsoftwolevels:alowerlevelofmeaninglessindividualsoundsandahigherlevelofmeaningfulunits.Languageisasystemofavocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.Thedisciplinethatstudiestherulesgoverningtheformationofwordsintopermissiblesentencesinlanguagesiscalleds.專業(yè).專注.word可編輯.Humancapacityforlanguagehasagbasis,butthedetailsoflanguagehavetobetaughtandlearned.Preferstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse.Findingsinlinguisticstudiescanoftenbeappliedtothesettlementofsomepracticalproblems.Thestudyofsuchapplicationsisgenerallyknownasalinguistics.Languageispinthatitmakespossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsbyitsusers.Inotherwords,theycanproduceandunderstandaninfinitelylargenumberofsentenceswhichtheyhaveneverheardbefore.Linguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthesstudyoflanguage.III.Therearefourchoicesfollowingeachstatement.Markthechoicethatcanbestcompletethestatement:Ifalinguisticstudydescribesandanalyzesthelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,itissaidtobe.A.prescriptiveB.analyticC.descriptiveD.linguisticWhichofthefollowingisnotadesignfeatureofhumanlanguage?A.ArbitrarinessB.DisplacementC.DualityD.MeaningfulnessModernlinguisticsregardsthewrittenlanguageas.A.primaryB.correctC.secondaryD.stableInmodernlinguistics,speechisregardedasmorebasicthanwriting,because.inlinguisticevolution,speechispriortowritingspeechplaysagreaterrolethanwritingintermsoftheamountofinformationconveyed專業(yè).專注.word可編輯.speechisalwaysthewayinwhicheverynativespeakeracquireshismothertongueD.AlloftheaboveAhistoricalstudyoflanguageisastudyoflanguage.A.synchronicB.diachronicC.prescriptiveD.comparativeSaussuretooka(n)viewoflanguage,whileChomskylooksatlanguagefromapointofview.A.sociological…psychological B.psychological…sociologicalC.appliecL.pragmatic D.semantic...linguisticAccordingtoF.deSaussure,referstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemem-bersofaspeechcommunity.A.paroleB.performanceC.langueD.LanguageLanguageissaidtobearbitrarybecausethereisnologicalconnectionbetweenandmeanings.A.senseB.soundsC.objectsD.ideasLanguagecanbeusedtorefertocontextsremovedfromtheimmediatesituationsofthespeaker.Thisfeatureiscalled,A.displacementB.dualityC.flexibilityD.culturaltransmissionThedetailsofanylanguagesystemispassedonfromonegenerationtothenextthrough,ratherthanbyinstinct.A.learningB.teachingC.booksD.bothAandBIV.Definethefollowingterms:Linguistics42.Phonology43.Syntax44.Pragmatics45.專業(yè).專注.word可編輯.Psycholinguistics46.Language47.Phonetics48.Morphology49.Semantics50.Sociolinguistics51.AppliedLinguistics52.Arbitrariness53.Productivity 54.Displacement55.Duality56.DesignFeatures57.Competence58.PerformanceLangue60.ParoleV.Answerthefollowingquestionsascomprehensivelyaspossible.Giveexamplesforillustrationifnecessary:Languageisgenerallydefinedasasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommu-nication.Explainitindetail.Whatarethedesignfeaturesofhumanlanguage?Illustratethemwithexamples.Howismodernlinguisticsdifferentfromtraditionalgrammar?Howdoyouunderstandthedistinctionbetweenasynchronicstudyandadiachronicstudy?Whydoesmodernlinguisticsregardthespokenformoflanguageasprimary,notthewritten?Whatarethemajordistinctionsbetweenlangueandparole?Howdoyouunderstandcompetenceandperformance?Saussure’sdistinctionbetweenlangueandparoleseemssimilartoChomsky’sdistinctionbetweencompetenceandperformance.Whatdoyouthinkaretheirmajordifferences?專業(yè).專注

.word可編輯.Doyouthinkhumanlanguageisentirelyarbitrary?Why?Chapter2PhonologyDecidewhethereachofthefollowingstatementsisTrueorFalse:VoicingisaphonologicalfeaturethatdistinguishesmeaninginbothChineseandEnglish.Iftwophoneticallysimilarsoundsoccurinthesameenvironmentsandtheydistinguishmeaning,theyaresaidtobeincomplementarydistribution.Aphoneisaphoneticunitthatdistinguishesmeaning.EnglishisatonelanguagewhileChineseisnot.1.語言的普遍特征：任意性arbitrariness雙層結構duality既由聲音和意義結構 多產性productivity移位性displacement:我們能用語言可以表達許多不在場的東西 文化傳播性culturaltransmission2。語言的功能：傳達信息功能informative人濟功能：interpersonal行事功能：Performative表情功能：Emotive寒暄功能：Phatic 娛樂功能recreatinal 元語言功能metalingual.語言學linguistics：包括六個分支語音學Phonetics音位學phonology形態(tài)學Morphology句法學syntax語義學semantics語用學pragmatics.現(xiàn)代結構主義語言學創(chuàng)始人：Ferdinanddesaussure提出語言學中最重要的概念對之一：語言與言語languageandparole,語言之語言系統(tǒng)專業(yè).專注

.word可編輯.的整體，言語則只待某個個體在實際語言使用環(huán)境中說出的具體話語.語法創(chuàng)始人:NoamChomsky提出概念語言能力與語言運用competenceandperformanceWhichofthefollowingstatementscanbeusedtodescribedisplacement.oneoftheuniquepropertiesoflanguage:wecaneasilyteachourchildrentolearnacertainlanguagewecanuseboth'shu'and'tree'todescribethesamething.wecanuselanguagetorefertosomethingnotpresentwecanproducesentencesthathaveneverbeenheardbefore..Whatisthemostimportantfunctionoflanguage?rmatived.metallingual.Thefunctionofthesentence"Aniceday,isn'tit?"is__ainformativeb.phaticc.directived.performative.Thedistinctionbetweencompetenceandperformanceisproposedby__asaussureb.hallidayc.Chomskyd.thepragueschool.Whoputforwardthedistinctionbetweenlanguageandparole?a.saussureb.chomskyc.hallidaydanomymous第二節(jié)語音學phonetics.發(fā)音器官由聲帶thevocalcords和三個回聲腔組成.輔音consonant:thereisanobstructionoftheairstreamatsomepointofthevocaltract..輔音的發(fā)音方式專業(yè).專注

.word可編輯.爆破音completeobstruction鼻音nasals破裂音plosives部分阻塞輔音partialobstruction擦音fricatives破擦音affricates等.輔音清濁特征voicing輔音的送氣特征aspiration.元音vowel分類標準舌翹位置，舌高和嘴唇的形狀6雙元音diphthongs,有元音過渡vowelglidesArticulatoryphoneticsmainlystudies__.thephysicalpropertiesofthesoundsproducedinspeechtheperceptionofsoundsc.thecombinationofsoundsd.theproductionofsoundsThedistinctionbetweenvowelsandconsonantsliesin__a.theplaceofarticulation b.theobstructionfairstreamc.thepositionofthetongue d.theshapeofthelipsWhatisthecommonfactorofthethreesounds:p,kta.voicelessb.spreadc.voicedd.nasalWhatphoneticfeaturedistinguishthepinpleaseandthepinspeak?a.voicingb.aspirationc.roundnessd.nasalityWhichofthefollowingisnotadistinctivefeatureinEnglish?a.voicingb.nasalc.approximationd.aspirationThephonologicalfeaturesoftheconsonantkare__a.voicedstopb.voicelessstopc.voicedfricatived.voicelessfricative專業(yè).專注

.word可編輯.pisdivverentfromkin__a.themannerofarticulationb.theshapeofthelipsc.thevibrationofthevocalcordsd.thepalceofarticualtion8.Vibrationofthevocalcordsresultsin__a.aspirationb.nasalityc.obstructiond.voicing第三節(jié)音位學phonology.音位學與語音學的區(qū)別：語音學著重于語音的自然屬性，主要關注所有語言中人可能發(fā)出的所有聲音；音位學則強調語音的社會功能，其對象是某一種語言中可以用來組合成詞句的那些語音。.音位phoneme:最小語音單位.音位變體allophones:讀音差別.對比性分布：如果兩個音段出現(xiàn)在同一個語音環(huán)境中，而且產生了兩個不同的單詞，.互補性分布；如果兩個基本相似的音段絕不會出現(xiàn)在相同的語音環(huán)境中，那么它們之間就是互補性分布的關系，如送氣p絕不會出現(xiàn)在s之后，不送氣的p絕不會出現(xiàn)在詞首.音節(jié)syllable,分為節(jié)首0nset,節(jié)峰peak,節(jié)尾coda.輔音群:一般作為音節(jié)節(jié)首的輔音群不能超過三個福音，節(jié)尾不能超過4個.最小語音對minimalpairsI.IntroductionWhatisLanguageLanguageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.WhatisLinguistics（語言學）Linguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage.專業(yè).專注

.word可編輯.meBasicDistinctions（區(qū)分）inLinguisticsSpeechandWritingOnegeneralprinciple（原則）oflinguisticanalysisistheprimacyofspeechoverwriting.Writinggiveslanguagenewscope（范疇）andusesthatspeechdoesnothave.Descriptive小述性）orPrescriptive（說明性）Alinguisticstudyisdescriptiveifitdescribesandanalysesfactsobserved;itisprescriptiveifittriestolaydownrulesfor"correct"behavior.Synchronic（共時）andDiachronic（歷時）StudiesThedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointintimeisasynchronicstudyandThedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtimeisadiachronicstudy.Langue（語言）andParolef言語）ThisisadistinctionmadebytheSwisslinguistF.DeSaussur嗦緒爾）earlylastcentury.languereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunityandparolereferstotheactualized實際的）language,orrealizationoflangue.Competencesm力）andPerformance（彳亍為）Competenceistheideallanguageuser'sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage.Performanceistheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinutterances發(fā)聲）.4.TheScopeofLinguisticsGenerallinguisticsisthestudyoflanguageasawhole.Phonetics語音學）isthebranchoflinguisticswhichstudiesthecharacteristicsofspeechsoundsandprovidesmethodsfortheirdescription,classificationandtranscription.Phonology（音韻學）isthebranchoflinguisticswhichstudiesthesoundpatternsof專業(yè).專注

.word可編輯.languages.Morphology（詞法）isthebranchoflinguisticswhichstudiestheformofwords.Syntax（句法）isthebranchoflinguisticswhichstudiestherulesgoverningthecombinationofwordsintosentences.Semantics（語義學）isthebranchoflinguisticswhichstudiesthemeaningoflanguage.Appliedlinguistics（應用語言學）isthestudyoftheteachingofforeignandsecondlanguages.Sociolinguisticsisthestudyoftherelationshipbetweenlanguageandsociety.Psycholinguisticsisthestudyoftherelationshipbetweenlanguageandthemind.HistoricalLinguistics（歷史語言學）isthestudyoflanguagechanges.Anthropologicallinguistics人文語言學）usesthetheoriesandmethodsofanthropologytostudylanguagevariationandlanguageuseinrelationtotheculturalpatternsandbeliefsofman.1\|0口9仙9351匕5（神經語言學）studiestheneurologicalbasisoflanguagedevelopmentanduseinhumanbeings.Mathematical加9351七5（數(shù)學語言學）studiesthemathematicalfeaturesoflanguage,oftenemployingmodelsandconceptsofmathematics.Computationallinguistics（計算語言學）isanapproachtolinguisticsinwhichmathematicaltechniquesandconceptsareapplied,oftenwiththeaidofacomputer.II.Phonetics（語音學）1.scopeofphoneticsSpeechsoundsmaybestudiedfromdifferentangles,thuswehaveatleastthree專業(yè).專注

.word可編輯.branchesofphonetics:Articulatoryphonetics（發(fā)音語音學）wemayexaminethewayinwhichaspeechsoundisproducedtodiscoverwhichvocalorgansareinvolvedandhowtheycoordinately'調）intheprocess.Auditoryphonetics（聽覺語音學）wemaylookintotheimpressionaspeakermakesonthehearerasmediated（調節(jié)）bytheear,theauditorynerveG神經）andthebrain.Acousticphonetics聲學語音學）westudythephysicalpropertiesofspeechsounds,astransmitted（傳送）betweenmouthandear.ThevocalorgansThevocalorgansmaybeviewedasconsistingofthreeparts,theinitiatoroftheair-stream,（氣流發(fā)生器官）theproducerofvoice（聲音發(fā)生器官）andtheresonatingcavities.（聲音共振器官）Consonants（輔音）Placesofarticulation（發(fā)音部位）:bilabial,（雙唇）Labiodentals,（唇齒）dental,（齒）alveolar,（齒齦）retroflex,（卷舌）palate-alveolar,（上齒齦）palatal,（上顎）velar,（軟腭）uvular,（小舌）glottal（聲門）Mannersofarticulation:plosive,（暴破）nasal,（鼻音）trill,（顫音）lateral,（邊音）fricative,（摩擦）approximant,（近似音）affricate（破擦）Vowels元音）Theclassificationofvowels:theheightoftongueraising（high,mid,low）,thepositionofthehighestpartofthetongue（front,central,back）,andthedegreeofliprounding（rounded,unrounded）專業(yè).專注

.word可編輯.III.Phonology（音韻學）phonemes（音素）:a+$節(jié)11/20（有區(qū)別的）soundinalanguage.Allophones（音位變體）:Thenondistinctivesoundsaremembersofthesamephoneme.Minimalpairs（最小對立體）:wordformswhichdifferfromeachotheronlybyonesound.Freevariation（自由變異）:Iftwosoundsoccurringinthesameenvironment環(huán)境）,theydoesnotproduceadifferentwordform,butmerelyadifferentpronunciationofthesameword.Complementarydistribution（補充分類）:Notallthespeechsoundsoccurinthesameenvironment.Whentwosoundsneveroccurinthesameenvironment.6.Suprasegmentalphonology（超音段音位）:thestudyofphonologicalproperties（f生質）ofunitslagerthanthesegment-phoneme.Theyaresyllable#節(jié)）,stress,（重音）wordstress,sentencestress.pitch（音調）andintonation（語調）.Morphology（詞法）inflection（構形法）:thegrammaticalrelationshipsthroughtheadditionofinflectionalaffixes.（屈折詞綴）Word-formation（構詞）:theprocesses（過程）ofwordvariationssignalinglexicalrelationships.（表明詞法關系）Theyarecompound（^^）andderivation（派生）.Morpheme（詞素）:thesmallestunitintermsofrelationshipbetweenexpressionandcontent.Allomorph（同質異象變體）:somemorphemeshaveconsiderablevariation,for專業(yè).專注

.word可編輯.instance,alternateshapesorphoneticforms.Typesofmorphemes:Theyareroots,詞根）affix（詞綴）andstem（詞干）.Lexicon（語言詞匯）:initsmostgeneralsense,issynonymouswithvocabulary.Closed-classwords（封閉性）andopen-classwords（開放性）:theformerwhosemembershipisfixedorlimitedandthelatterwhosemembershipisinprincip圃際上）indefiniteorunlimited.Wordclass（詞'性）:Itdisplaysawiderrangeofmorepreciselydefinedclasses.Lexeme（詞位）:thesmallestunitinthemeaningsystemofalanguagethatcanbedistinguishedfromothersmallerunits.Idiom（習語,成語）:Mostphrasallexemesareidioms.Itisespeciallytrueforasequenceof0。9$詞序）whichissemantically（語義上）andoftensyntactically^^上）restricted.（限制）Collocation（搭配）：thehabitual（習慣的）co-occurrences（同時出現(xiàn)）ofindividuallexicalitems.Syntax向法）Positionalrelationorwordorder（詞序）:thesequential（M^）arrangementofwordsinalanguage.Constructionorconstituent（句子結構）：theoverallprocessofinternal（內部）organizationofagrammaticalunit.Syntacticfunction句法功能）:therelationshipbetweenalinguisticformandotherpartsofthelinguisticpatterninwhichitisused.Thenamesoffunctionsareexpressedintermsofsubjects,objects,predicates,modifiers!!飾語）complements（補語）,etc.專業(yè).專注

.word可編輯.Category（^W）:Itreferstoclassesandfunctionsinitsnarrowsense,e.g.noun,verb,subject,predicate,nounphrase,verbphrase,etc.Thecategoriesofthenounincludenumber,gender,caseandcountability.Phrase:asingleelementofstructurecontainingmorethanoneword,andlackingthesubject-predicatestructuretypicalofclause.Clause:agroupofwordswithitsownsubjectandpredicate,ifitisincludedinalargersentence.Sentence:Itistheminimumpartoflanguagethatexpressesacompletethought.SemanticsConceptualismormentalism概念主義）:FollowingF.DeSaussure索學爾）'s"sign"theory,thelinguisticsignissaidtoconsistofasignifier（所指）andsignified（被指），i.e.,asoundimageandaconcept,likedbyapsychological（心理的）"associative"bond.（相關聯(lián)系）Mechanism（機械主義）:Somelinguists,Bloomfield,（布魯費爾德）forexample,turnedtosciencetocounter（反）-acttheprecioustheoriesandthisleadstowhatcallthemechanisticapproach（方法）.Thenatureofthistheoryhasnothingtodowiththescientificstudyofmentalphenomena.（智力現(xiàn)象）Contextualism（語境主義）:Itisbasedonthepresumption（^^）thatonecanderivemeaningfromorreduceittoobservablecontext.Behaviorism（行為主義）:Behavioristsattempttodefine（定義）themeaningofalanguageformas"thesituation（WM）inwhichthespeakerutters（說話）itandtheresponse（反應）itcallsforthinthehearer."專業(yè).專注

.word可編輯.functionalism功能主義）:functionalistsasrepresented代表）bythePragueschool（布拉格學派）linguistsandneo-Firthian（新弗斯）linguists,approachtheproblemfromanentirelyneworientation（方法）.Theyargue（爭辯）thatmeaningcouldonlybeinterpreted（解釋）fromitsuseorfunctioninsociallife.Senserelationships:Whilereferencedealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelements,words,sentences,etc.,andthenon-linguisticworldofexperience,senserelatestothecomplexsystemofrelationshipsthatholdbetweenthelinguisticelementsthemselves.TheyincludesynonymyC同義詞），antonymC反義詞），hyponymy（下層次）PolysemyL詞多義）andHomonymy（同音異義詞）Semanticanalysis:Itincludes1）componential（成分）analysiswhichdefinesthemeaningofalexicale