1、精選優(yōu)質(zhì)文檔-傾情為你奉上Chapter 1 Introduction語言學的定義：Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.問題：How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language?It is a scientific study because it is based on the systematic investigation

2、 of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.What the linguist has to do “first, then, but”:to observe and collect language facts and generalizations are made about them.to formulate some hypotheses about the language structure.to check the hypotheses th

3、us formed repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity.The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. (普通語言學)問題: What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?phonetics（語音學）the study of soundsphonology（音位學）study how sounds are

4、put together and used to convey meaningmorphology（形態(tài)學）study the way in which symbols or morphemes are arranged and combined to form words.syntax（句法學）the study of rules of forming sentencessemantics（語義學）the study of meaningpragmatics（語用學） the context of language useSociolinguistics（社會語言學）：The studies

5、 of all these social aspects of language and its relation with society form the core of the branch.Psycholinguistics（語言心理學）：Relate the study of language to psychologyApplied linguistics（應(yīng)用語言學）：In a narrow sense it refers to the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching,

6、especially the teaching of foreign and second languages. Some important distinctions in linguistics:prescriptive（規(guī)定性）/descriptive（描寫性）synchronic（共時）/diachronic（歷時）speech（口語）/writing（書面語）langue（語言）/parole（言語）（the Swiss linguist F. de SaussureCourse in General Linguistics）competence（語言能力）/performance（

7、語言應(yīng)用）（the American linguist N. Chomsky）traditional grammar （傳統(tǒng)語法）/modern linguistics（現(xiàn)代語言學）問題：in what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not

8、 the written.modern linguistics does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.問題：Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why? In modern linguistics, a synchronic (不考慮歷史演進的, 限于一時的) approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic (探求現(xiàn)象變化的, 歷時的) one. Because it is believed tha

9、t unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development. Synchronic descriptions are often thought of as being descriptions of language in its current existen

10、ce, and most linguistic studies are of this type.問題：For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writing?From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speec

11、h when the need arises. Even in todays world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.Spoken language reveals more true features of human speech whil

12、e written language is only the “revised” record of speech. And linguists data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regarded as authentic.語言的定義：Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Design features of language（7個識別特征）a

13、rbitrariness 任意性 （at the syntactic level）productivity 能產(chǎn)性，創(chuàng)造性 Secondary units（底層結(jié)構(gòu) sounds）duality 雙層性 Primary units （上層結(jié)構(gòu) units of meaning）displacement 不受時空限制性（handle generalization and abstraction）cultural transmission 文化傳遞性interchangeability 互換性convention 約定性Functions of language：三大主要功能：The descri

14、ptive functionThe expressive functionThe social functionRoman Jacobson（6種首要因素，結(jié)構(gòu)主義語言學家）speaker addresseremotive 感情功能addresseeconative 意動功能contextreferential所指功能messagepoetic 詩學功能contactphatic communion交感功能codemetalinguistic 元語言功能Other functions:phatic function 問候功能informative f. 信息功能interrogative f.

15、 詢問功能expressive f. 表達功能evocative f. 感染功能directive f. 指令功能performative f. 行使（權(quán)力）功能M.A.K. Hallidayideationalinterpersonal（indicate/establish/maintain/social relationships）textual問題：How is Saussures distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomskys distinction between competence and performance

16、?The distinction between langue and parole was made by Saussure, langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use. Parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable; it does not change frequently, while parole varies from people to pe

17、ople, and from situation to situation.The distinction between competence and performance proposed by the American linguists Chomsky, competence is a deal users knowledge of the rules of his language, and the performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Imperfe

18、ct performance is caused by social and psychological factors.Saussure makes this distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. In his opinion, parole is simple a mass of linguistic facts, too varied confusing for systematic investigation, and that linguistics should do

19、 is to abstract langue from parole, i.e., to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics.Similar to Saussure, Chomsky thinks what linguists should study is the ideal speakers competence, not his performance, which is too haphazard

20、 to be studied. 問題：What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system?arbitrariness 任意性 （at the syntactic level）productivity 能產(chǎn)性，創(chuàng)造性 Secondary units（底層結(jié)構(gòu) sounds）duality 雙層性 Primary units （上層結(jié)構(gòu)

21、units of meaning）displacement 不受時空限制性（handle generalization and abstraction）cultural transmission 文化傳遞性interchangeability 互換性convention 約定性Chapter 2 PhonologyPhonetics: （語音學）the study of the phonic medium of languagelook at speech sounds from 3 distinct but related points of view. study the sounds f

22、rom the speakers point of viewarticulatory phonetics（發(fā)音語音學） look at the sounds from the hearers point of viewauditory phonetics（聽覺語音學） study the way sounds travel by looking at the sound wavesacoustic phonetics（聲學語音學）study how sounds are produced, transmitted and perceived.Organs of speech:three imp

23、ortant areas The pharyngeal cavitythe throat the oral cavitythe mouth the nasal cavitythe nose The pharyngeal cavitywindpipe/glottis/larynx/vocal cords the oral cavitytongue/uvula/soft palate(velum)/hard palate/teeth ridge(alveolus) /teeth/lipsInternational Phonetic Alphabet （IPA）diacritics 附加符號broa

24、d transcription（寬式標音）the transcription with letter-symbols onlynarrow transcription（嚴式標音）the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacriticsClassification of English speech soundstwo broad categories of speech sounds in English: Vowels/consonantstwo ways to classify the English conson

25、ants: In terms of manner of articulationIn terms of place of articulationIn terms of manner of articulation: Stops/fricatives/affricates/liquids/nasals/glidesIn terms of place of articulation: Bilabial/labiodental/dental/alveolar/palatal/velar/glottalbilabialLabio-dentaldentalalveolarpalatalvelarglo

26、ttalstopsVLptkVDbdgfricativesVLfshVDvðzaffricatesVL(t)tVD(d)dnasalsVDmnliquidsVDl/rglidesVDwjClassification of English vowelscriteria :（monophthongs）單元音 The position of the tongue in the mouth: front/central/back The openness of the mouth: close vowels/semi-close vowels/semi-open vowels/open vo

27、wels The shape of the lips: unrounded/rounded The length of the vowels: tense/laxfrontcentralbackclose i:u: i uSemi-close e:Semi-open:open æ aa:diphthongs 雙元音/ ei / / ai / au / u / i / i / u /Phonology 音韻學，語音體系Difference of phonology and phonetics: Phonetics is interested in all the speech soun

28、ds used in all human languages. Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.Phone（音素）: A phone is a phonetic unit or segment.Phoneme（音位）: It is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distin

29、ctive value. It is an abstract unit. It is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context.Allophone（音位變體）: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phon

30、eme.Phonemic contrast（音位對立）Complementary distribution（音位變體的互補分布）Minimal pairs（最小對立體）：含音位的單詞的全部音標Minimal set（最小對立集）：is used to find the important sounds in language.Phonological Analysis（音位分析）Principle: certain sounds cause changes in the meaning of a word or phase, whereas other sounds do not.Phonet

31、ically similar sounds: 描述音位關(guān)系Free variants: 音位的自由變體The difference of pronouncing a sound caused by dialect, habit, individual difference or regional differences instead of by any distribution rule.Some rules in phonology sequential rules: 序列規(guī)則If a word begins with a / l / or a / r /, then the next s

32、ound must be a vowel.If three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should obey the following three rules:The first phoneme must be / s /The second phoneme must be / p / / t / / k /The third phoneme must be / l / r / w /assimilation rule:同化規(guī)則deletion rule：省略規(guī)

33、則Suprasegmental features 超音段特征超音段（比音位更大的語言單位） stress （單詞，句子層面）：the location of stress in English distinguishes meaning.Syllable音節(jié)：A syllable nucleus (often a vowel) with optional initial and final margins (often consonants)單音節(jié)詞多音節(jié)詞英語單詞都有重讀音位學中，單詞由音節(jié)構(gòu)成，音節(jié)由音位構(gòu)成。句子里讀重音的詞：Nouns/main verbs/adjectives/adv

34、erbs/numerals/demonstrative pronouns tone （詞匯層面）English is not a tone languageChinese is a typical tone language: Level/the second rise/the third fall-rise/the fourth fallintonation （句子層面）English has four basic types of intonation:The falling tone/the rising tone/the fall-rise tone/the rise-fall ton

35、e問題：What are the two major media of communication? Of the two, which one is primary and why?Speech and writing Speech Because from the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the nee

36、d arises. Even in todays world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.Spoken language reveals more true features of human speech while written lang

37、uage is only the “revised” record of speech. And linguists data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regarded as authentic.問題：What is voicing and how is it caused?Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called “voicing”, which is

38、 a feature of all vowels and some consonants in English.Chapter 3 Morphology 詞法形態(tài)學1 定義和知識點：the part of the grammar that is concerned with word formation and word structurethe branch of linguistics that studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.it is essentially

39、 synchronic, primarily concerned with the forms of words through the use of morpheme construct.it overlaps with the other sub-branches as a word is a sound unit that has meaning and syntactic function.four facets: Sounds (phonology) Constructions (syntax) Meanings (semantics) Forms of words2 詞性分類ope

40、n class words: 名、動、形、副 are the content words of a language closed class words: 連、介、冠、代 are small and stable since few new words are added3 詞素有關(guān) Morpheme: 詞素構(gòu)成單詞的最小意義單位，包括聲音和意義，abstract units(任意性) Morph: 形素 the sound of a morpheme 聲音 Allomorphs: 語素變體 The variant forms of a morpheme4 分類morphemes Free

41、morpheme(自由詞素): A morpheme which can be a word by itself bound morpheme(粘著詞素)：A morpheme that must be attached to another one lexical morphemes/ derivational morphemes(派生詞素,包括前后綴): They are used to derive new words, also known as derivational morphemes inflectional morphemes(屈折詞素)：詞類不發(fā)生變化5 單詞定義：Word

42、A word is a unit of expression which is intuitively recognized by native speakers in both spoken and written language.A word is a basic and minimal units of a language to make sentences, which are combinations of words according to syntactic rules. A word is a lexeme(詞位). A lexeme is a word in an ab

43、stract sense.A word can be defined as a grammatical unit.6 單詞結(jié)構(gòu)：Structure Root: the root constitutes the core of the word and carries the major component of its meaning. Roots belong to lexical category.Stem: it is the form of the word to which both inflectional and derivational morphemes can be add

44、ed.Base: 詞基Affixes: they are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function. All of them are bound morphemes and dont belong to a lexical category.7 單詞合成：Word formationmorphological rulesproductive morphological rulesderivationcompounds 幾點注意：When the two words are in

45、 the same grammatical category, the compound will be like this: n. + n. / adj. + adj.When the two words fall into different categories: n. + adj. / v. + n. （不總是這樣）The meaning of a compound is not always the sum of the meanings of its parts.8 單詞合成過程：compoundingaffixation or derivation Blends 混合詞 Abbr

46、eviation 縮略語shortening acronyms 按音節(jié)拼讀首字母的單詞 Initials 按字母拼讀的單詞 Clippings 縮寫詞backformation 逆構(gòu)詞法9 要點Grammatical morphemes are grammatical in nature, functioning as grammatical markers or show syntactic relations.They consist of both inflectional morphemes and some free ones like in, and, do, they, whil

47、e, where, but and that, which are traditionally known as functional words.Chapter 4 Syntax 句法1 定義It is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2 四大派別traditional syntax 傳統(tǒng)學派structural syntax 結(jié)構(gòu)主義學派（索緒爾）transformational syntax 生成學派（喬姆斯基）（本書重點學習）functional

48、syntax 功能學派（哈里德）3 范疇Categories Noun (N) Verb (V) Major lexical categories Adjective (A) Preposition (P)Word-level categories Determiner (Det) 限定詞/成分 Degree words (Deg) 程度詞 Minor lexical categories Qualifier (Qual) 修飾語 Auxiliary (Aux) 助詞 Conjunction (Con) 連詞Syntactic categories 句法范疇的定義：The fact that

49、words in all human languages can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes.注：The word-level categories are the most central categories to the syntactic study.Major lexical categories (主要詞匯范疇) play a very important role in sentence formation and they are often assumed to be the he

50、ads around which phrases are built.Minor lexical categories (次要詞匯范疇) Meaning 意義Three criteria to determine a words category inflection 屈折變化 Distribution 分布? It is misleading to assume that a words category can be told straightforward from its meaning:nouns do not concretely reveal their entities.som

51、e words tend to be verbs but they can also be used as nouns.words with the same or similar meanings sometimes belong to different word categories. Phrases are syntactic units that are built around a certain word category.The phrase is built around the word category.The word category determines the c

52、ategory of phrase.4 要點生成學派認為句子由短語構(gòu)成。短語單詞詞素音節(jié) 短語層面任何短語都有2個層面 單詞層面5 the most commonly recognized and discussed phrasal categories:NP: noun phraseVP: verb phraseAP: adjective phrasePP: prepositional phrase6 the elements of phrases that are formed of more than one word:head/termed head 中心語/中心成分: The wor

53、d around which a phrase is formedspecifiers 標志語/標志成分：The words on the left side of the heads complements 補語/補足語/補足成分：The words on the right side of the heads7 phrase structure rule 短語結(jié)構(gòu)規(guī)則定義：A special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that makes up a phrase.The phrase structure rule for NP, VP, AP, PPNP(Det) N (PP) VP(Qual) V (NP) AP(Deg) A (PP) PP(Deg) P (NP) XP rule公式一：XP (specifier) X (complement)X Theory （X 標桿理論）X :