1、Word-formationWord-formation or word-building is that branch of lexicology which studies thepatterns on which a language, in this case, the English language, coins new words. Percentage of new words coined by the different word-formation processes after World War The three major processes of word fo

2、rmation:Composition or CompoundingDefinition : Compounding is a word-formation process consisting ofjoining two or more bases to form a new unit, a compoundword. Compoundingis the most productive word-formation process in contemporary Englishstand-up collar 豎領spoon-feed 填鴨式灌輸，嬌笨嘴笨舌heavy-tongued飽經風霜

3、weather-beaten/worn半死不活批量生產mass-produceIdentity crisis個性危機hit-and-run tactics 打了就跑的戰術養糊里糊涂muddle-headed/minded無憂無慮carefree令 人 心 碎 heart-breakingdead-alive/dead-and-alive不合時宜ill-timed/badly-timedCompoundsare very often used because of their brevity and vividness. For example,A schoolboy is more conci

4、se than “ a boy attending school ” ;Up-to-the-minuteinformation ” is more vivid than “ the latest information“ The old man would sit for hours, is more compact and expressive thanthinking sadly of all the might-have-beens ” thinking sadly of the desirable things thatcould have happened in the pastTh

5、e relative criteria of a compound wordOrthographic criterion （書寫標準） : Compounds are written in three ways, .solid:airmail ;hyphenated:air-conditioning;open:air force, air raid.Phonological criterion （語音標準 ） :Compound accent : a single stress on the first element; or a main stress on the first elemen

6、t and a secondary stress on the second element. . 'blackboard, 'blue bottle （a large buzzing fly with blue body）Normal phrase accent : a secondary stress on the first element and a main stress on the second element. . blue 'bottle （a bottle which is blue）Semantic criterion（ 語義標準） : A com

7、pound is a combination forming a unitexpressing a single idea. The lexical meaning of the components are closely joined together to create a compound with a meaning which one can easily recognize, . backdoor, sunset, workday. However, the meaning of a compound is not always the sum of the meanings o

8、f its parts, . dog days, flatfoot （ a policeman）, greenhouse, greenback （ 美鈔 ） ， green-hand（ 生手 ）, greenroom （演員休息室）, mother wit （天生的智力） , Indian paper （字典紙）.More examples: home letters（ 家信 ）, home voyage （歸程）, home life （家庭生活）,homeaffairs （家庭事務）， homebird （不愛外出的人）, homeeconomics （家政學）, homefront （大

9、后方）,homegames （在本地舉行的比賽）,homehelp （家務女傭）,homemaker（主婦）, home plate （棒球的本壘打）, home sickness （思家病）.Word order :A flower pot （ 花盆 ） a pot flower （ 盆花 ） tiptoe（ 腳尖 ） deaf-mute （聾啞者）Someof them were influenced by French : court martial（ 軍事法庭） ; president elect（當選總統）; ambassador designate （尚未上任的大使）Classif

10、ication of compoundsCompounds can be classified according to parts of speech of the compounds.noun compounds : airplane , flower potadjective compounds:weather-beaten , snowwhiteverb compounds:proof-read, baby-sitproposition compounds: notwithstanding, alongside ofconjunction compounds: whenever ,wh

11、ereaspronoun compounds:another , myselfThe three commonest types are noun compounds, adjective compounds, and verb compounds.noun compounds? Noun + nounrainwater 雨 水 ; springwater 泉 水 ; houseplants 室 內 植 物 ;fireball 火 球 ; firecracker 鞭炮 ; spacecraft/spaceship 太空船； spacesuits 太空服； mousemat ； 鼠 標墊 Dre

12、am Team； bar code 條形碼；lip service 口頭上說得好聽的話；informationhighway 信息高速公路；science fiction 科幻小說；sugar cane 甘蔗； gaslight煤氣燈；? Noun + verbdaybreak 拂曉； nightfall 夜幕降臨；sunset/sunrise 日落， earthquake 地震；landslip/landslide （ 山體滑坡） ； headache toothache ； stomachache ； heartbeatdrumbeat ； footbeat 腳步節拍； wingbeat

13、翅翼振動； window-dress 布置櫥窗；water-supply 自來水 ； snowfall 降雪量；toothpick 牙簽； haircut ； pickpocket ；scarecrow 稻草人 （ scare the crow）? Verb + nouncry baby （ 愛哭的嬰兒） ； playboy （ 花花公子） ； glowworm （ 發光蟲 ） ； watch-dog （ 看家狗 ）, swearword （罵人話）, breakwater （防波提）, driveway （車道）, jump suit （傘兵跳傘服，連衣褲工作服）； rattle snake

14、（ 響尾蛇 ）? Verb + adv / prepchangeover （ 轉變進程） ； setback （ 挫折 ） ； breakdown （ 崩潰 ）， show-off（ 炫耀 ）,slip-up （疏忽，不幸事故）, put-off （推遲，搪塞）, follow-up （連續廣告法）sit-in,dropout, breakdown, walk-on, walkout, setback, take-offAdjective + nounclear-way（ 超速道路）, easy-chair, deadline, hard disk, soft disk， red tape（

15、官樣文章 ）? adverb + noununder-clothes（ 內衣），after-effect（后效，副作用）,upgrade （升級）,overburden? V+ing + nounchewing gum（口香糖），bakingpowder （發酵粉）,reading lamp （臺燈）,lodging house（分間出租供人休息用的房屋）， leading article（ 社論 ）, working party （作業隊）? Adverb + verboutlet（ 出口 ）, upset （顛覆）, downfall （垮臺，陷落）, upstart （暴發戶）, onf

16、low（滾滾向前）adjective compounds? Pre-modifier VS. Post-modifier（ describe a noun phrase or restrict itsmeaning in some way）? Compound modifiers, because of their expressiveness and brevity, are used quite flexibly in current English, especially in journalistic writings.? noun + adjective? skin-hungry,

17、power-hungry, news-hungry, career-hungry （ 急 于 成 名 的 ） , bloodthirsty? duty-free, tax-free, fat-free, toll-free, maintenance-free, dust-free, interest-free, care-free, ice-free, danger-free, nuclear-weapon-free? water-proof, fire-proof, bullet-proof, rain-proof, bomb-proof, vibration-proof? air-sick

18、, seasick, car-sick, home-sick, heartsick （沮喪的 ）? user-friendly, reader-friendly? profit-conscious,time-conscious,class-conscious, environment-conscious,security-conscious? slap-happy（ 被打得暈頭轉向的） boxer ， trigger-happy （ 嗜殺成性的）gangster ，travel-happy（ 對旅游入迷的）? accident-prone, crisis-prone （ 危機四伏的） ， er

19、ror-prone,? air-tight（ 不透氣的） ， water-tight, light-tight（不透光的）, rain-tight? work-shy（ 不愿工作的） ， camera-shy（ 怕上鏡頭的） ， publicity-shy （ 不愿出頭露面的 ）? color-blind, night-blind? blood-weary （ 厭戰的 ） ， travel-weary（ 旅途勞累的）? stone-deaf, skin-deep, snow-white, ice-cold, knee-deep, paper-thin, mirror-bright, feath

20、er-light, fire-hot, crystal-clear, waist-high, shoulder-high, life-long, grass-green, dog-tired, threadbare（穿舊的）? college-bound/preparatory （ 準備考大學的） ， labor-short （ 缺乏勞動力的） ，top-heavy（ 頭重腳輕的） ， penny-wise（ 小事聰明的） ， oven-fresh （ 剛出爐的）line-dry（ 一晾就干的） ， world-famous? adjective + adjectivewet-cold, ic

21、y-cold, red-hot, white-hot, bitter-sweet, deaf-mute, shabby-genteel（ 窮酸的 ） ， dead-alive（ 半死不活的） ， dark-blue, deep-blue, light-blue,yellowish-green ， social-political） ， soaking-wet/wringing-wet（ 濕淋冷得刺骨的，冰冷的）all-round （ 全面的 ） ， far-reachingpale-blue, bright-red, bloody-red, yellow-green,? V+ing + adj

22、ectivesteaming-hot/smoking-hot （ 滾燙的，熱氣騰騰的淋的，濕得可擰出水來的） ， biting-cold/freezing-cold （? Adverb/Prep + adjectiveever-victorious （ 戰無不勝的） ， over-cautious,（ 深 遠 的 ， 廣 泛 的 ） ， evergreen （tree）, wide-awake （ 機 警 的 ） ， over-sensitive, over-anxious, under-ripe （ 不成熟的） ， too-rapid? noun +V+ingpeace-loving,tim

23、e/space/energy/labor-saving,time-consuming,summer-flowering（ 夏 季 開 花 的 ）, ocean-going （ 遠 洋 的 ） ， fault-finding, record-breaking, heart-breaking, hair-raising, side-splitting （ 令 人 捧 腹 的 ） ， thirst-quenching （ 解渴的 ） ， man-eating? noun + V+edheart-felt（ 衷心的 ）, air-born （空降的，空運的）, home-made, travel-wo

24、rn （旅行得 疲 乏 的 ）, hen-pecked, book-filled, poverty-stricken, weather-beaten,thunder-struck, suntanned? adjective/adverb + V+ingfresh-frozen（ 速凍的 ）, easy-going（ 隨和的 ）, familiar-sounding （ 聽起來熟悉的） ，hard-working, ever-lasting （ 永恒的 ）? adjective/adverb + V+ednewly-developed, well-balanced, far-fetched （

25、牽強附會的） ， half-baked（ 烤得半生不熟的，膚淺的）, hard-won （ 來之不易的） ， quick-frozen （ 速凍的 ）, new-laid （eggs）, so-called, fresh-caught, newly-built, well-informed, well-organized? noun + Noun+edhot-tempered（ 急性子的） ， chicken-hearted （ 膽怯的，軟弱的） ， honey-mouthed,paper-backed （ 平裝本的） ， eagle-eyed（ 目光尖銳地）? adjective/adv.

26、+ Noun+edshort-sighted, tender-hearted, sweet-hearted（ 性情溫和的）, green-fingered（ 擅長園藝的） ， open-handed, single-handed, bald-headed, empty-headed, hot-headed,kind-hearted,light-hearted,whole/half-hearted,absent-minded,narrow/broad-minded,double-faced,straight-faced,blue-eyed,muddle-minded/headed （ 糊里糊涂）

27、 , commercially-minded, heavy-tongued （笨嘴笨舌的 ） ， middle-aged, cold-blooded, strong-bodied, rosy-cheeked, apple-cheeked, close/tight-fisted（ 吝 嗇 的 ） ， bare-footed, white-haired, high-heeled, ill-intentioned, weak-kneed （ 易屈服的） ， long-legged, close/tight-lipped （ 嘴緊的 ）,ill-mannered, thick/thin-skinned

28、 （ 臉 皮 厚 / 薄 ） ， high-spirited, iron-willed, quick/short/slow/bad-tempered, glib-tongued （ 油嘴滑舌的） ， loose-tongued（ 嘴不嚴的）? adjective + Nounlong-distance, full-length（未刪節的）， white-collar, red-letter（ 喜慶的 ）, ，full-time, first-rate, high-speed, high-level, low-frequency, left-hand, real-time（ 實時的），long-

29、range, deep-sea （fish）? Verb + Nounbreak-neck （ 危險的 ） ， telltale（ 搬弄是非的） ， cut-rate （ 減價的，次等的）? Phrases or sentencesat-risk（處境危險的）,in-your-face（明目張膽的）,devil-may-care（不顧一切的）,dog-eat-dog（狗咬狗的） ,round-the-clock, on-the-spot, cards-on-the-table,matter-of-fact, never-to-be-forgotten, once-in-a-life-time,

30、 off-the-cuff （臨時想起的意見）opinion, back-up （ 備用）a stand-up collar （ 豎領）,a walk-in closet （ 走 入式大壁櫥 ）,a see-through shirt（透明的襯衫）take-home pay, cross-border raid ,a keep-fit class （保健班）verb compoundsThe common way to form a compound verb is by means of back-formation. The back-formation is a process of w

31、ord formation by which a word is created by dropping the supposed or imagined affixesHousekeeping f housekeep, test-drive（試車），machine-gun, nickname, spotlight,honeymoon, outline, speed-read, soft-land, vacuum-clean, mass-produce, sight-see, proof-read, tape-record, chain-smoke, ghost-write, air-cond

32、ition, baby-sit, window-shop, spoon-feed, hen-peck, snowball, middle-road（走中間道路）,chain-react, face-harden（ 使表面硬化 ）,wire-pull （幕后操縱 ）,daydream, skyrocket, sleepwalk,highlight, safeguard, whitewash, sweet-talk, job-hopA compound verb can also be formed by means of analogy:from chain-smoke:feed from a

33、bottle. from breast-feed:? feed from a mother's breastA compound verb can also be formed by means of verb phrasesoverwork, withhold（ 扣留），cross-question（ 盤問），upbuild （建立），uplift, uproot, fast-talk（ 花言巧語地企圖說服 ），off-load（ 卸貨），outeat（ 吃得比 多），outgo, outgrow , ill-treat, overhear, overtake, undergo, u

34、nderline, undermine, undertake,Affixation or DerivationIt is a process of forming new words by the addition of a word element, such as a prefix, suffix, or combining form, to an already existing word.A combining form is a bound morpheme, which was originally a full word in Latin or Greek, such as au

35、to - （from GK autos self ）.據統計下列14個詞根和20個詞綴出現在詞典里10, 000多個英語單詞中詞前綴詞根Preceptpre - （before）capere （take, seize）detainde- （away, from）tenere （hold, have）intermittentinter - （between）mittre （send）offerob- （against）ferre （bear, carry）Insistin - （into）stare （stand）monographmono （alone, one）graph （write）ep

36、ilogueepi (upon)egein (say, study)詞前綴詞根aspectad- (to, toward)spicere (see)uncomplicatedun- (not);com (together)plicare (fold)nonextendednon- (not);ex- (out of)tendere (stretch)reproductionre - (back, again);pro - (forward)ducere (lead)indisposedin - (not); dis - (apart from)ponere (put, place)oversu

37、fficientover - (above); sub- (under)facere (make, do)mistranscribemis- (wrong); trans - (across)scribere (write)Number-related prefixes from Latinprefixmeaningexamplesuni-oneuniformduo-twoduet （ 一重唱/奏）tri-threetrio （ 三人組）quad-, quart-fourquadruplets (四胞胎)quint-fivequintupletssextsixsexet （六人組）septse

38、venseptember (7th month, Roman calendar)oct-eightoctobernonaninenonagenarian (90-99 歲的人)Number-related prefixes from Latindeca-tendecadecent-hundredcentigrade ( 一 白 度的)multi-manymultiplyprim-, prin-firstprimarysecundsecondsecondaryambiboth （雙）ambivalent （ 兩種價值觀的，有矛盾心理的）equi-equalequidistant （等距離的）om

39、ni-allomnipotence （全能）semi-, semhalfsemester （half a year學期）demi-halfdemitasse （half a cup for serving coffee （小杯清咖啡）Number-related prefixes from GreekprefixmeaningexamplesMono-onemonologueduo-, di-twodialoguetri-threetriangletetra-fourtetrameter （ 四首,步詩penta-fivepentameter , pentagonhexa-sixhexagon

40、hepta-sevenheptagondeka-, dec-tendecathlonhemi-halfhemispherepan-allpandemic （大流行病）The definition of prefixationPrefixation is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems. Prefixes do not generally change the word-class of the stem but only modify its meaning.However, there is an insignif

41、icant number of class-changing prefixesNon-class-changing prefixes:natural-unnatural, like-dislike, fair-unfairClass-changing prefixes:force-enforce, danger-endanger, form-deform,little-belittle, war-postwar, college-intercollegeThe classification of pre3xesIn some reference books, prefixes （and suf

42、fixes） are classified according toor privative prefixtheir source, but this does not seem to help from a practical point of view. It seems more helpful to classify the most important productive prefixes by their meaning into the following ten categories:The most productive prefixesPrefixes which are

43、 negativea-, dis-, in-, non-, un-Prefixes which are reversative or privativede-, dis-, un-Prefixes which are pejorativemal-, mis-, pseudo-Prefixes which are of degree or sizearch-, extra-, hyper-, macro-,mini-, out-,over-, sub-, super, sur-, ultra-, under-Prefixes which are of attitudeanti-, co-, co

44、ntra- counter-, pro-Prefixes which are locativeextra-, fore-, inter-, intra-, super-, tele-, trans-,Prefixes which are of time and orderex-, fore-, pre-, post-, re-Prefixes which are of numbersemi-, uni-, mono-, bi-, di-, tri-, multi-, poly-?Prefixes which are of a miscellaneous categoryAuto-, neo-

45、pan-, proto-, vice-a-/an-amoral, asexual, atheism, anacid, anarchy,dis-dishonest, discontent, disobey, disagreen-Incomplete,inconsistent,incorrect,invulnerable,illogical,illegal,impolite,immoral, imbalance,irrational, irregularnon-nonviolent, non-cooperation, nonautomatic, nonadjustable, nonalcoholi

46、cun-uninformative, unexpected, unease, unrestprefix含“消除”意思de-defrost,deregulation,degeneration, denationalize ,dehydrate depollute, devalue, decentralizeun-undo, unpack, untie, unwrap, unmaskdis-disconnect, dishearten, disinterested（ 公正的， 無私的）， disambigulateprefixmis-misguide, misapplication, misbeh

47、avior, mischoice,mal-maladjustment,maldigestion,malfunction,maldevelopment,maltreat, malodorous, malnutritionpseudo-pseudonym,pseudoscience,pseudoclassic,pseudo-friend, pseudodemocratic,4） Prefixes of degree or sizehyper-hyperactive,hypercritical,hyperaggressive,hypercautiousultra-ultramodern,ultras

48、ecret,ultraclean,ultraconservativeultrasonic,mini-minibus, minicamera, miniskirtout-outdo, outgrown, outliveover-overwork, overestimate, overemphasize, overburdenoverabundance,under-underdeveloped, underpopulation, undergraduatesuper-supermarket, superpower, superstarsub-subadult, subtitle, subbreed

49、, subatom5) Prefixes of orientation and attitudeco-Co-author, co-star, co-prosperity, cooperationcounter-Counterexample,counterclaim,counterattack, counterculture, counterpartcounteractive,anti-anti-abortion,anti-art,antisocial, anticancer, antibodyantiwar,antibacterial,pro-pro-American, pro-American pro-student, proslavery米美的,pro-Communist,6) Locative prefixesfore-forearm, foreheadinter-nternational,intergovernmental,interdiscipl