1、二、社會資本的類型及功能目前，關于社會資本的分類主要有兩大方法。一種是以馬斯·福特·布朗( Brown，1997) 為代表的層次分類法，他認為社會資本系統可以按照“要素、結構和環境”的三維概念，劃分為微觀、中觀和宏觀三個層面: 微觀社會資本主要是個人形成的價值觀念和規范等; 中觀層次的社會資本是集團間所形成的信任、互惠、義務和期望等; 宏觀社會資本體現為國家制度、法律框架、公民權利以及社會凝聚力8。另外一種較為普遍的分類是以Uphoff ( 1996) 為代表的二維分類法，他將社會資本劃分為結構型社會資本和認知型社會資本，結構型社會資本是指社會資本中有形的方面，如影響人們交

2、互行為的網絡、規則、程序、制度、組織等; 認知型社會資本主要是無形的，如共同的價值觀念、互惠、信任和聲望等9。以上兩大分類方法雖然依據不同，但都強調了社會資本中的網絡、信任、聲望、合作。基于前文關于社會資本內涵的討論，從社會資本構成的角度可以把社會資本分為四種基本類型: 即網絡型社會資本、信任型社會資本、聲望型社會資本和參與型社會資本。網絡型社會資本是指社會成員形成的關系網絡規模、網絡密度及他們在網絡中的地位; 信任型社會資本是指個體間形成的信任以及個體對組織的信任程度; 聲望型社會資本即在網絡關系和合作行為中長期形成的權威關系以及人們的互惠規范; 參與型社會資本主要指組織成員中集體活動參與程

3、度。盡管社會資本有不同的類型，但社會資本實質上是一種重要的生產要素，對人們經濟生活和社會發展起著重要的作用，具有多重功能。首先，社會資本具有社會功能。社會資本的社會功能主要體現在生活保障、經濟支持、精神支持和維護社會秩序上。人們形成特定的關系網絡，可以相互幫助，給貧困的人們提供一定的生活保障和經濟支持; 在交往過程中，人們借助于彼此間的信任關系和對規范、制度的共同遵守，不僅提供物質支持，還給弱者供給情感、精神上的支持和安慰。此外，社會資本的形成促進了社區人們的協調與合作，增強歸屬感，壓制了社會犯罪等不良的社會行為，對社區治安有重要作用; 同時，社會資本增進了人們對政治生活的參與，保證了社會的有

4、序運轉。其次，社會資本具有經濟功能，社會資本的經濟功能體現在多個方面。1 促進經濟發展。不少學者認為在社會網絡中，成員間頻繁交流可以減少因信息不完全而帶來的風險和不確定性，利用個體的社會關系及其信任，利用組織的社會聲望和納入公民參與可以替代契約，降低交易成本，利于提高經濟績效，實現經濟的繁榮和發展。Grootaert ( 2002) 認為社會資本與經濟發展之間有正相關關系10; 張其仔( 1997) 從社會網絡的角度出發，探討社會資本與經濟增長等的關系，認為社會資本促進經濟增長11。2 解決集體行為困境。在公共產品領域存在“搭便車行為”、“哈丁悲劇”和“囚徒困境”等集體供給矛盾，奧斯特羅姆(

5、Ostrom，2000) 將社會資本引入到集體選擇理論中，證實了通過自發形成的社會資本能夠將分散的農戶聚集起來，解決集體供給行為困境的問題12。社會資本的個人社會關系網絡、信任和聲望促進了信息的流動，降低了交易風險性，減少了機會主義和搭便車行為，增加交易機會，提高合作供給效率。3 社會資本能夠促進人力資本再生產，增加人力資本的收益。網絡成員通過資源長期互利形成一種合作和信任，這為人們獲取教育和就業等提供更多的機會，對人力資本的再生產有著積極的作用，這種人力資本的投資收益主要表現在健康、勞動力職業地位的獲得等方面。張智勇( 2007) 認為社會資本可以減少遷移的心理成本，可以縮短農民工尋找工作的

6、時間，得出社會資本對農民工就業有積極作用13。可見，社會資本提高了人力資本收益率。4 社會資本有利于增加居民收入，提高居民的福利水平。居民累積的社會資本可以強化社會交往和信息交流，長時間的交往利于居民間信任的建立。這種社會資本給居民帶來一定的資源和利益，如就業信息提供、貸款支持等，有助于增加居民的收入，同時提高居民的福利水平。Naravan等( 1999) 通過對坦桑尼亞的一些鄉村進行調查，測量農民參與組織的社會資本發現社會資本對家庭收入有正影響14。黃瑞芹等( 2008) 經過實證分析，得出中國農村社會資本對農戶家庭收入有顯著正影響15。趙劍治( 2010) 認為家庭的社會關系網絡對農村居民

7、收入差距具有很大的貢獻16。三、社會資本的度量因社會資本內涵豐富，具有多維特征，目前學術界爭議頗多，且社會資本表現為一種隱含的資本，較難用明確的顯性指標直接進行度量。所以，關于社會資本的度量一直是理論界面臨的一個難題。如科爾曼III、the measurement of social capital.Because social capital, with multiple features, has abundant implications, it has been controversial among theorists. Besides that social capital act

8、 as a kind of invisible capital, it is hard to be measured by obvious norms directly. Hence, it has been a difficulty among theorists to measure social capital. Personal network analysis is the most popular method to measure social capital, including the nomination method and position generating met

9、hod. The nomination method is a kind of census of the group and group members in one society, through the information of the networks members provided by the respondents, to study social capital. Position generating method is according to the positions of respondents in the network to analyze social

10、 capital. However, all these methods have great uncertainty in the material collection. Social capital need to be transformed into a series of practical measurable indicators to measure itself. Different scholars selected various indicators according to their own experience and research aim, due to

11、the differences in the understanding of the connotation of social capital. For example, Colman measured social capital starting from the individual perspective, through social networks relationship, social membership, homogeneity and heterogeneity. Putnam expanded the scope of the study. Based on th

12、e community perspective, community organizational life, participation in public affairs, community volunteer activities, informal social contact and trust these five indicators were adopted to measure social capital.Scholars express their own views about social capitals implication, focusing on diff

13、erent research aims and emphasizing differently, which is mainly on one dimension or few dimensions of social capital, leading to different measurements. for the establishment of index selection, it is mainly devoted to certain aspects of social capital index system, from single level or a few level

14、s to measure it. The mutual connection between the dimensions was ignored, so it is hard to grasp social capitals measurement from the overall integrity of the index system, with the lack of a comprehensive system. The author thinks that the measurement of social capital needs to start from the soci

15、al networks, social trust, social prestige and social participation these four dimensions, to establish a comprehensive index system with these four aspects.當然，社會資本是一個復雜的系統，如何科學合理的衡量社會資本存量還有待進一步的探索和完善。Of course, the social capital is a complex system, and how to scientifically and rationally measure

16、 its stock still needs further exploration and improvement.四、進一步深入研究的領域盡管社會資本的內涵尚存爭議，社會資本的度量指標難以統一，但社會資本這一概念的強大的解釋力，使它成為眾多學科的熱門概念和分析經濟社會現象的重要工具。未來對社會資本的研究會逐漸深入，主要體現在以下方面。1 社會資本的作用機理。一個社會的社會資本狀況直接影響著成員的個體行為和集體行為，也會影響社會的運行機制和治理模式。社會資本將分散的、擁有一定資源的個體通過一定的網絡關系結合在一起，在網絡中他們之間相互交流、合作和協調，優化共享配置資源，最終使個人理性與社會理

17、性、個人利益與社會利益有機地統一起來。因此，研究彼此間的內在機理及相互作用關系，探索不同類型的社會資本對人們行為的影響，解釋社會資本與經濟增長、社會發展、文化傳統的關系，對現實生活具有重要的理論意義。IV. the further research fieldAlthough the social capitals implication and measurement indicators are still controversial, the powerful explanation of social capital, make it as an important tool to a

18、nalyze social economic phenomena and be the popular concepts among various subjects. In the future, the research on social capital will be gradually in-depth, mainly reflected in the following aspects.1.the action mechanism of social capitalThe social capital of a society directly affects the indivi

19、dual behaviors and collective behaviors of members, which will also affect the operation mechanism and the governance model of the society. Social capital incorporate individuals together that are dispersed and have certain resources through certain network relationship. In the network, they contact

20、, cooperate and coordinate mutually, optimizing and sharing the allocation of resources, to ultimately enable the individual rationality, social rationality, personal benefits and social benefits as an organic unity. Therefore, the research on internal mechanism of the mutual relationship and intera

21、ction, exploring the effects of different types of social capital on human behaviors, to explain the relationship among social capital, economic growth, social development and cultural tradition, have important theoretical significance to real life.2 社會資本度量方法的創新。首先社會資本更多的牽涉到了情感和主觀因素，這些因素難以量化，需要尋找可定量

22、的替代性指標進行實證分析，為測度社會資本提供更為科學的依據。此外，社會資本因國家背景和內涵迥異，研究目標和分析層次不同，而選取了不同的衡量指標。經濟研究的終極目標是發現一貫的普遍性規律，從錯綜復雜、形態各異的世界中抽取社會資本的核心因素，建立具有全面性、普遍性和系統性的指標衡量社會資本是今后研究的目標。3 不同主體的社會資本特征。社會資本隨著環境變化、人們所處的階層差異、人們所占有的資源及形成的網絡關系不同而有所不同，其信任、聲望和參與各有特色。對社會資本的研究需要考察不同環境下個體層次、集體層次或社會層次的社會資本。尤其是在人情味很濃的中國，社會資本有很強的地緣、血緣和宗族關聯，這就需要從本

23、土視角分析社會資本。然后，考察包括個人、企業和社區在內的不同的主體的社會資本特征，找到他們的內在差異，為研究社會資本提供一個更為清晰的邏輯思路。4 社會資本的動態研究。現有研究傾向于從靜態的角度分析社會資本的相關內容，而對社會資本的動態研究不足。社會資本是擁有資源的人們集結成的網絡關系，這種網絡不是固定不變的，而是隨著時間的推移、環境的變遷和成員心理的變化而不斷變化的。在網絡形成、發展和完善階段_社會資本呈現出不同的特征，同時社會變遷也會對社會資本造成影響，因此在現代化進程中，從發展的角度看待社會資本問題需要深入分析轉型中的社會資本更新問題。信息時代下互聯網對社會資本構建的作用。隨著互聯網的廣

24、泛使用，社會資本不再局限于個體間有形的網，已經外延到計算機網絡這張無形的網中。這種傳播速度快、應用范圍廣、普及程度高的網絡媒介從一定程度上促進了社會資本的擴張和更新，為研究社會資本提供了一個更為寬廣的空間。因此，將互聯網納入考察體系，研究互聯網在社會資本構建中的作用，有著重要的現實意義，充分體現與時俱進。Social capital is a interdisciplinary field of social science and economics, about which, the theorists have differences implications. Clarifying t

25、he concept of social capital, grasping the implication of social capital is the premise and foundation of the research social capital.Social capital was proposed by LydaHanifan(1916) initially, who believed that social capital is the sense of compassion, kindness, compatriots, and social interaction

26、,relationship composing social unit groups and families. Lyda Hanifan defined social capital mainly from the angle of sociology, emphasizing that social capital is the relationship between the individual and the family composition, which has characteristics of obtaining resources and meeting needs.

27、Social capital was firstly introduced to economic analysis by Loury(1977) who gave the definition of social capital is “the social connection, emerged spontaneously, of promoting and helping obtain the valuable skills or traits among people from the market. ” The implications from Loury and Lyda Han

28、ifan both emphasized that social capital is a kind of social connection and the members of society are beneficiaries of this connection net. However, Loury confined the implication of social connections member, who has some kinks of natural endowments. Great interests of scholars have been attracted

29、 by the different explanation of social capital. The research scope of social capital was expanded greatly ,not only to explain various phenomena ,but also widely used in the economis field. Nonetheless, different scholars have different views and understanding of social capital, because of the diff

30、erences of study purposes and levels. The current definition of social capital can be summarized as follows:1.The theory of social connection.Some scholars consider the social capital is a kind of social network, which mainly exists among individuals, occupying and exploring the resources of the net

31、work as its essential representation form.The typical representative of this theory is a French scholar, Bourdieu (1997)，who hold the view that social capital is one kind of actual or potential resources aggregation, which has a close relationship with the occupying of some kind of lasting network.

32、This connection network, systematized, is got familiar and recognized by every member, who own these resources. This theory that social connection network, composed by society members, supply members with useful resources. Therefore, the key of social capital is the link embedded by the members who

33、own the special resources. This link needs certain resources as the basis, maintaining itself by inner trust relationship formed by frequent exchange.2.The theory of social trust.Some scholars believe that the trust is a key element of social capital, rooted in the social network, becoming the impor

34、tant link to realize the goal of the network. The typical representatives of this theory is Putnanm and Fukuyama .Putnam(2001) considered that “Social capital ,the organizational network, composed by a series of trust, networks, and regulations , can promote collective cooperation and then improve t

35、he work efficiency. ” He emphasized the importance of trust, indicating that the inherent mechanism of cooperative behavior formed by citizen trust. The more trust among citizens, the more likely to achieve cooperative behavior. Fukuyama expanded concept made by Putnam, from the perspective of commu

36、nity, indicating that social capital, based on the community tradition, is established as informal values and norms to be shared among the society members. The cooperation behavior was promoted because its convergence would generate trust to others. Ultimately, social capital embodies the trust from

37、 the network members. At the same time, the trust broke the individual constraints, and can be extended to the range of community, meanwhile the cooperative behaviors are more likely to be generated with the trust among members.3.The theory of authority relationColeman considered that social capital

38、 is the capital property, owned personally, of which the social structure resources are features. Social capital is composed of various elements of social structure, existing in the structure of interpersonal relationship, in which, people transfer a part of personal rights to get exchange for contr

39、olling others resources. He emphasized that the authority relation of people controlling resources is the form of social capital, which is based on the exchange between the long term trust and resources, being the domination to resources by people. Therefore, social capital exist in the structured i

40、nterpersonal relations firstly, in which the concrete manifestation is the own and control to the resources. The person ,who have more resources to control , has more rights to speak and set up more authorities, which affect others behaviors and attitudes and help people acquire more resources. It a

41、lso can be concluded that social capital is the authority relation formed through the mutual control and owned resources among relation network members. 4.The theory of social participation Some scholars consider that the importance of social capitals implication is the social participation. More im

42、portantly, as a kind of social resources, social capital acts on the political and economic life, through participations of different individuals and groups. Burts(2000) confined the social capital as “the capital of individuals acquire scarce resources form networks or other wider social structures

43、, through their membership. This acquiring ability is a kind of capital among the relations of people, which is the result of embedment , other than being inherent. ” In his train of thought, two constrains as “the mutually beneficial expectation” and “the enforceable trust” is supplied by existing

44、structure, which enable everyone obtain some kind of membership, through “the rational embedment” and “the structural embedment”. This embedment is one kind of social participation integrating different members into the whole organization.Although foreign scholars have different emphases when graspi

45、ng the implication of social capital, they all consider social resources as the carrier of social capital, functioning based on some relation networks, in which every individual own their location and field according to their owned resources. From a broader sense, trust, formed by mutual frequent in

46、teraction among members of social capital networks, has created the relationship of reputation and constrain, so that members can distribute the scarce resources. Therefore, the function basement of social capital is network resources and the trust, reputation, and participation is the essential ele

47、ments of social capital. First of all, social capital exists in some kind of relation networks. Social capital is a network relationship composed of one or more than two people, in which every member has field of his own and occupy some resources, combining together to achieve the goal.Second, “the

48、relation of trust” is the essential element of social capital, found based on the trust formed by the frequent interaction of people. By virtue of this trust, agreement is achieved easily among people and the efficiency of realizing the goal is enhanced.The third one is that the authority relation,

49、formed by social capital, has the control power to the resources and create a kind of social reputation in the long term development of interpersonal relationship. Because of resources occupied by their own, in the network node of interpersonal relationship, the worship and recognition to the authority through the trust formed