ChapterⅡ

Morphology

——thestudyoftheinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.

ChapterⅢ主講：宋建勇1DefinitionofmorphologyMorphologyreferstothestudyoftheinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.21.WhatiswordWord:aunitofexpressionthathasuniversalintuitiverecognitionbynative-speakers,whetherspokenorwritten1.1Threesensesof“word”:Aphysicallydefinableunit:Wordmaybeseenasaclusterofsoundsegmentsorlettersbetweentowpausesorblanks.Phonologicalandorthographic(書寫上)Problem:Whenliaisonandcontractedformsoccur32)Wordbothasageneraltermandasaspecificterm:boy,boyscheck,checks,checked,checkingLexeme(詞位):theabstractunitunderlyingthesmallestunitinthelexicalsystemofalanguage,whichappearsindifferentgrammaticalcontextsWritewrite,writes,wrote,writing,writtenFatfat,fatter,fattest43)Agrammaticalunit:sentenceclausephrasewordmorphemeProblem:freemorphemesorwords:black,bird,air,craft,town,hall51.2Identificationofwords1)Stability:theconstituentpartsofacomplexwordcannotberearrangedchairman﹡manchairThechairmanlookedattheaudience.Theaudiencelookedatthechairman.2)Relativeuninterruptibility:Newelementscannotbeinsertedintoawordevenwhenthereareseveralpartsinaword.disappointmentdis+appoint+mentPaul,(Jane)andRebeccaaremyclassmates.63)

Aminimumfreeform:thesmallestunitthatcanconstituteacompleteutterancebyitself,eg--IsJanecomingtonight?--Possibly.Hi.Wonderful.71.3ClassificationofwordsVariablevs.invariablewords:Variablewords:Onecouldfindorderedandregularseriesofgrammaticallydifferentwordforms;ontheotherhand,partofthewordremainsconstantfollow,follows,following,followed;mat,matsInvariablewords:thosewordssuchassince,when,seldom,through,hello.Theydonothaveinflectiveendings.2)

Grammaticalwordsvs.lexicalwords:Grammaticalwords:expressgrammaticalmeanings,suchasconjunctions,prepositions,articles,pronounsLexicalwords:havelexicalmeanings,thosewhichrefertosubstance,actionandquality,suchasnouns,verbs,adjectives,andadverbs.8Thelexicalwordscarrythemaincontentofalanguage(contentwords)andthegrammaticalwordsservetolinkthedifferentpartsofasentencetogether(functionwords).3)Closed-classwordsvs.open-classwords:Grammaticallexicalwordsclosed-classopen-classwordsClosed-class:awordwhosemembershipisfixedorlimited.Newmembersarenotregularlyadded.Pronouns,prepositions,conjunctions,articles,etc.Open-class:Awordwhosemembershipisinprincipleinfiniteorunlimited.Nouns,verbs,adjectives,adverbsNote:Thedistinctionisnotquiteasclear-cutasitseems.Prepositions:regarding,throughout,outof,accordingto,withregardto,inspiteof,bemeansofAuxiliaryverbs94)Wordclass:ItisclosetothenotionofPartsofSpeechintraditionalgrammar.Eightorninewordclassesareestablished:noun,pronoun,adjective,verb,adverb,preposition,conjunction,interjection,article.10Somenewcategories:Particles(助詞):theinfinitemarker(to),thenegativemarker(not),thesubordinateunitsinphrasalverbs(getby,doup,lookback)b.Auxiliaries(助動詞):usedtoberegardedasverbs,linguiststendtodefinethemasaseparatewordclassratherthanverbs.

11c.Pro-form(替代形式):referstotheclosedsetsofitemswhichcanbeusedtosubstituteforanominalgroup(名詞詞組)orasinglenoun.Pro-adjective:Yourpenisred.Soismine.Pro-verb:HeknowsEnglishbetterthanhedid.Pro-adverb:Hehopeshe’llwinandIhopesotoo.Pro-locative(代處所詞):Jame’shidingthere,behindthedoor.12d.Determiners(限定詞):wordswhichareusedbeforethenounactingasheadofanounphrase,anddeterminethekindofreferencethenounphrasehas,e.g.the,a(n),some,allQuirk,etal.(1985:253):threesubclassesofdeterminers:Predeterminers:all,both,half,double,twice,threetimes,one-third,one-fifth

Centraldeterminers:

a,an,the,this,that,these,those,every,each,some,any,no,either,neither,my,our,your,his,her,its,their13Postdeterminers:cardinalnumerals(基數詞),ordinalnumerals(序數詞),generalordinals(一般順序詞):next,last,past,(an)other,additionalandotherquantifierslikemany,afew,several,much,little,alotof,plentyof,agreatdealof,agreatnumberofWhendifferentsub-classesofdeterminersoccurtogether,theyfollowtheorderofpredeterminers+centraldeterminers+postdeterminers.﹡theiralltroublealltheirtrouble

14Withineachsubclass,themembersareusuallyexclusiveofeachother.*theiralltrouble*fivetheallboys*allthisboy*allbothgirlsButordinalnumeralsandgeneralordinalsmayoccurbeforecardinalnumerals.thefirsttwodaysanotherthreeweeks152.Theformationofword2.1Morpheme(語素)&morphology(形態學)Chairman:chair,manTownhall:town,hallBoys:boy,-sChecking:check,-ingDisappointment:dis-,appoint,-mentThecomponentsofawordareknownasmorphemes.Theythemselvescannotbefurtheranalyzed.16一、術語解釋1.open-classwords[浙江大學2007；武漢大學2007研]

【答案】Open-classwordsrefertowordswhosemembershipisinprincipleinfiniteorunlimitedandwiththeemergenceofnewideas,inventions,andsoon;newexpressionsarecontinuallyandconstantlybeingaddedtothelexicon.Forexample,nouns,verbs,andadjectivesallbelongtothisclass.2.determiners

[中山大學2005研]【答案】Determinerisawordwhichisusedwithanoun,andwhichlimitsthemeaningofthenouninsomeway.Forexample,inEnglish,thedeterminercanberealizedbya,this,her,some,etc.3.lexicalword

[武漢大學2005研,浙江大學2005研]【答案】Lexicalword.lexicalwordsarealsocalledcontentwords,referringtothosewhichhavelexicalmeanings，thatis，thosewhichrefertosubstance,actionandquality,suchasnouns,verbs,adjectives,andadverbs.英語專業考研真題精選二、選擇題1.Wordslikepronouns,prepositions,conjunctions,articlesare

items.[北京第二外國語學院2003研]A.open-classB.closed-classC.neitheropen-classnorclosed-class

【答案】B2.Intermsofthemeaningexpressedbywords,theycanbeclassifiedinto

.[大連外國語學院2008研]A.grammaticalwordsandlexicalwordsB.contentwordsandlexicalwordsC.grammaticalwordsandfunctionwords

【答案】A三、填空題1.Asthelexicalwordscarrythemaincontentofalanguagewhilethegrammaticalonesservetolinkitsdifferentpartstogether,thelexicalwordsarealsoknownascontentwordsandgrammaticalones

.

[中山大學2008研]

【答案】functionwords2.Intraditionalgrammar,

istheonlywordclasswhichcanfunctionasasubstituteforanotheritem.[中山大學2006研]

【答案】pronoun3.Intermsofthemeaningexpressedbywords,theycanbeclassifiedinto

wordsand

words.[南開大學2007研]

【答案】lexical,grammatical四、判斷正誤1.Wordsarethemoststableofalllinguisticunitsinrespectoftheirinternalstructure.[大連外國語學院2008研]

【答案】T2.Pronouns,prepositions,conjunctionsandarticlesareallopenclassitems.[清華大學2001研]【答案】F3.Nouns,verbs,adjectivesandmanyadverbsarecontentwords.[北京第二外國語學院2008研]

【答案】T2.Theformationofword2.1Morpheme(語素)&morphology(形態學)Thecomponentsofawordareknownasmorphemes.Morpheme--theminimalunitofmeaning；theythemselvescannotbefurtheranalyzed.Wordsarecomposedofmorphemes.Wordsmayconsistofonemorphemeormoremorphemes,e.g.1-morphemeboy,desire2-morphemeboy+ish,desir(e)+ble3-morphemeboy+ish+ness,desir(e)+bl(e)+ity4-morphemegentle+man+li+ness,un+desir(e)+abl(e)+ity5-morphemeun+gentle+man+li+ness6-morphemeanti+dis+establish+ment+ari+an+ism21Morpheme:thesmallestunitoflanguageintermsofrelationshipbetweenexpressionandcontent,aunitthatcannotbedividedintofurthersmallerunitswithoutdestroyingordrasticallyalteringthemeaning,whetheritislexicalorgrammatical.Morphology

studiestheinternalstructureofwords,andtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.222.2Typesofmorphemes1)Freemorpheme&boundmorpheme(自由語素和黏著語素)IntermsoftheircapacityofoccurringaloneFreemorphemes:thosewhichmayoccuralone,i.e.thosewhichmayconstitutewordsbythemselvesdog,nation,closeAllmonomorphemicwordsarefreemorphemes.23Compounds:polymorphemicwordswhichconsistwhollyoffreemorphemes,paymaster,moonwalk,babysit,godfather,sunflowerBoundmorphemes:thosewhichcannotoccuralonedistempered:dis-,temper,-ed242)Root,affix，stem&base(詞根、詞綴，詞干和詞基)Poly-morphemicwordsmaybedividedintorootsandaffixes.Arootisthebaseformofawordthatcannotfurtherbeanalyzedwithouttotallossofidentity.InternationalismAllwordscontainarootmorpheme.Anaffixisthecollectivetermforthetypeofmorphemethatcanbeusedonlywhenaddedtoanothermorpheme(therootorstem).Affixisnaturallybound.25Affixesarelimitedinnumberinalanguage,andaregenerallyclassifiedintothreesubtypes,prefix(前綴),suffix(后綴),andinfix(中綴).Prefixmorphemesthatoccuronlybeforeothers,e.g.un-,dis,anti-,ir-,para-,mini-，etc.Suffixmorphemesthatoccuronlyafterothers,e.g.-ful,-er,-ish,-ness,-able,-tive,tion,-ise,etc.●Infix:foot/feet,goose/geese26Arootmaybefreeorbound,butanaffixisnaturallybound.First,freerootmorphemesarethosethatcanstandbythemselvesandarethebaseformsofwords,e.g.black(black,blackbird,blackboard,blacksmith).Freerootmorphemesarepotentiallyunlimitedinnumberinalanguage.Second,therearerelativelyafewboundrootmorphemesinEnglish,e.g.-ceive(receive,perceive,conceive);-mit(remit,permit,commit,submit);-tain(retain,contain,maintain);-cur(incur,recur,occur)27Third,afewEnglishrootsmayhavebothfreeandboundvariants.SleepandchildsleptandchildrenAstemisanymorphemeorcombinationofmorphemestowhichaninflectionalaffix(屈折詞綴)canbeadded.Friend-infriends,andfriendship-infriendships28BaseAbaseisanyformtowhichaffixesofanykindcanbeadded.Thismeansanystemandrootcanbetermedasabase.29Thedifferencebetweenroot,stem&baseAbasecanbeaddedbybothinflectional&derivationalaffixeswhileastemcanbeaddedonlybyinflectionalaffixes;Abaseisderivationallyanalyzable(e.g.undesireinundesirable)whilearootcannotbefurtheranalyzed,e.g.desireinundesirable;Root,stemandbasecanbethesameform,e.g.desireindesired;Undesirableinundesirablesiseitherastemorabase;Desirableinundesirableisonlyabase.303)Inflectionalaffix&derivationalaffix(屈折詞綴和派生詞綴)Somedifferencesbetweenthem:First,inflectionalaffixesaregenerallylessproductivethanderivationalaffixes:theyveryoftenonlyaddaminuteordelicategrammaticalfunctiontothestem,toys,walks,John’s.Theyservetoproducedifferentformsofasinglelexeme.Incontrastderivationalaffixesareveryproductiveinmakingnewwords.e.g.cite,citation;generate,generation31Second,inflectionalaffixesdonotchangethewordclassofthewordtheyattachto,suchasflower,flowers,whereasderivationalaffixesmightormightnot,suchassmall-smallness,brother-brotherhood.Derivationalaffixesoftenchangethelexicalmeaning.32Third,whetheroneshouldaddinflectionalaffixesornotdependsveryoftenontheotherfactorswithinthephraseorsentence.e.g.Theboylikestonavigateontheinternet.Derivationalaffixesaremoreoftenbasedonsimplemeaningdistinctions.Clever,cleverness33InEnglish,inflectionalaffixesaremostlysuffixes,whicharealwayswordfinal.drums,walks,Mary’sDerivationalaffixescanbothbeprefixesandsuffixes.suburban,depart,onlineslaver,teacher,workable342.3Word-formation35Twofieldsmorphology(形態學)concerns:thestudyofinflectionsINFLECTIONALMORPHOLOGYthestudyofwordformationLEXICALorDERIVATIONALMORPHOLOGY361)Inflection:themanifestationofgrammaticalrelationshipsthroughtheadditionofinflectionalaffixes,suchasnumber,person,finiteness(有定性),aspect(體)andcase（格),whichdonotchangethegrammaticalclassofthestemstowhichtheyareattached.Nominalforms:

boys,boy’sVerbforms:

wants,wanted,wantingAdjective/adverbforms:

smaller,smallest372)Wordformation:theprocessofhowwordsareformedTwosub-types:ThecompositionaltypeCOMPOUNDThederivationaltypeDERIVATION38i.Compound:thosewordsthatconsistofmorethanonefreemorphemes,thewaytojointwoseparatewordstoproduceasingleformicecream,sunrise,paperbag,cloakroom,cupboard,drugstore,railwayIncompounds,thelexicalmorphemescanbeofdifferentwordclasses.Twoormorefreerootscombinetomakeanewword.Nouncompounds:

daybreak,playboy,haircut,windmillVerbcompounds:

brainstorm,lipread,babysitAdjectivecompounds:

gray-haired,

insect-eating,dutyfreePrepositioncompounds:

into,throughout39Compoundscanbefurtherdividedintotwokinds:theendocentriccompound(向心復合詞)theexocentriccompound(離心復合詞)Endocentric:oneelementservesasthehead,therelationshipof“akindof”;egself-control:akindofcontrolarmchair:akindofchairExocentric:thereisnohead,sonotarelationshipof“akindofsomething”,egscarecrow:notakindofcrowbreakneck:notakindofneck40Waysofwritingacompound:

Solid:Compoundscanbewrittenasasingleword:wardrobe,bodyguard,seashore.Hyphenated:Theycanalsobejoinedwithahyphen:wedding-ring,traffic-light,simple-minded.Open:Somecanbewrittenwithordinaryspacesbetweenthetwoparts:washingmachine,trafficisland,counterrevolutionary.Freevariation:

businessman,business-man,businessmanwinebottle,wine-bottle,winebottle41SomepointsaboutcompoundsWhenthetwowordsareinthesamegrammaticalcategory,thecompoundwillbeinthiscategory,e.g.postbox,landlady,icy-cold,blue-black…Whenthetwowordsfallintodifferentcategories,theclassofthesecondorfinalwordwillbethegrammaticalcategoryofthecompound,e.g.head-strong,pickpocket…Compoundshavedifferentstresspatternsfromthenon-compoundedwordsequence,e.g.redcoat,greenhouse…Themeaningofacompoundisnotalwaysthesumofthemeaningsofitsparts.42ii.

Derivation:Derivationshowstherelationbetweenrootsandaffixes.un+conscious→unconsciousnation+al→nationalnational+ize→nationalizenationalize+ation→nationalizationDerivationscanmakethewordclassoftheoriginaleitherchangedorunchanged.43Class-changing:N>V:lengthen,hospitalize,discardN>A:friendly,delightful,speechlessV>N:worker,employee,inhabitantV>A:acceptable,adorableA>N:rapidness,rapidityA>V:deafen,sweetenAdj>Adv:exactly,quickly44Class-preserving:N>N:nonsmoker,ex-wife,bookletV>V:disobey,unfastenA>A:grayish,irrelevant45Formsderivedfromderivationarerelativelylargeandpotentiallyopen.pre-,-ableInEnglishthereisusuallyoneinflectionalaffixperword,butmultiplederivationalaffixesareallowed.monumental,transcendental,capability,musicality,accountancy,dependency,characterization,joyfulness,silliness,effectively,beautifully,delightfully,AmericanismSomewordscancarrybothprefixesandsuffixes.Bipartisan,abbreviation,bigamist,continuously,contradiction462.4Sememevs.Morpheme,andPhonemevs.Morpheme1)Sememevs.morphemeSEMEMEisthesmallestcomponentofmeaning.e.g.Themorpheme–shasonlyonesememe:PLURALITY,meaningmorethanone.Therelationshipbetweensememeandmorpheme,fivemappingandnon-mappingoccasions:i.Onemorphemevs.onesememeOnemorphemehasonlyonesememe.e.g.–less,meaningWITHOUT

fearless,careless,ceaseless,countless,doubtless,shameless,faceless,speechless,faceless47ii.Onemorphemevs.morethanonesememeOnemorphememayhavetwoormorethantwosememes.e.g.a-threesememesarise,awaitawash,ablushatypical,asymmetry48iii.Onesememevs.morethanonemorphemeOnesememeisexpressedwithtwoormorethantwomorphemes.表示no和non意義的語素除了a-之外，還有其他的語素，例如e-,il-,ne-,un-等erostrate,illicit,neither,untidy49iv.Morphemesthathavenospecificsememe

Therearealsomorphemesthathavenospecificsememe,butmayhelpchangegrammaticalandsemanticcategories.e.g.en-enjoy

50v.FunctionchangesinbothsememeandmorphemewithoutmorphemechangeTheremayalsobenomorphemechangeinaword,butboththegrammaticalandthesemanticcategorieswouldchangeaccordingtothecontextitoccurs.e.g.runrunacompany,inashortrun512)Morphemevs.PhonemePhoneme:thesmallestmeaningfulunitofsoundMorpheme:thesmallestmeaningfulunitingrammarThecorrespondencebetweenthetwolevelsoflanguage:

MORPHOPHONOLOGYorMORPHONEMICS---abranchoflinguisticsthatreferstotheanalysisandclassificationofthephonologicalfactorsthataffectthemorphemeforms,andcorrespondingly,themorphologicalfactorsthataffectthephonemeforms.So,itstudiestheinterrelationshipbetweenphonologyandmorphology.52Thereareseveraloccasionsoftherelationship:i.Asinglephonemevs.asinglemorphemeAsinglephonememayrepresentasinglemorpheme,buttheyarenotidentical.SeeEx.3-20onPage70.ii.Asinglemorphemevs.multiplephonemeMorphemesmayalsoberepresentedbyphonologicalstructuresotherthanasinglephoneme.Morphemesmaybemonophonemic,monosyllabicorpolysyllabic.SeeEx.3-21onPage70.53iii.

Allomorph(語素變體):

Somemorphemeshaveasingleforminallcontexts,suchas“dog,bark,cat”,etc.Inotherinstances,theremaybesomevariation,thatis,amorphememayhavealternateshapesorphoneticforms.Theyaresaidtobetheallomorphsofthemorpheme,thepluralmorphememayberepresentedby:mapmaps[s]dogdogs[z]watchwatches[iz]mousemice[ai]oxoxen[n]toothteethsheepsheepEachoftheunderlinedpartiscalledanallomorphofpluralmorpheme.54Likephoneme,morphemeisanabstractunit.Morphemesareputbetweenbraceslike｛｝.Somemorphemicformsrepresentdifferentmorphemesandthushavesememes.

55iv.MorphemicconditionsMorphemeshapesvaryaccordingtobothphonologicalconditionsandtotheconditionsoftheirown.Therearetwocases:a)Phonologicallyconditioned:Theformorshapeofmorphemesmaybeconditionedbyphonologicalfactors.

injusticeimperfectinefficientimpenetrableinfirmimpossible56b)Morphologicallyconditioned:Morphemescanalsobeconditionedbymorphologicalfactors.Threerequirements:First,alltheallomorphsshouldhavethesamesememe,e.g.thepluralmorphemeSecond,alltheallomorphsshouldbeincomplementarydistribution.Third,allomorphsthathavethesamesememeshouldoccurinparallelformation.SeeEx.3-26onPage72.57一、術語解釋1.boundroot[四川大學2006研]

【答案】Itreferstothebaseformofawordthatcannotfurtherbeanalyzedwithouttotallossofidentity,andthisbaseformcouldnotoccuralone,suchas“-ceive”in“receive”.2.Functionalmorpheme[上海交通大學2005研]

【答案】Functionalmorpheme.Thisisasubtypeoffreemorphemes,whichoneconsistslargelyofthefunctionalwordsinlanguagesuchasconjunctions,prepositions,articlesandpronouns,forexample,“and,aboutwhenon,near,the”andsoon.其他考過的術語：allomorph[四川大學2006研]morpheme[浙江大學2005研；武漢大學2008研；四川大學2006，2007研]stem[四川大學2007研；南開大學2004研]inflectionalmorpheme[南開大學2004研]Freemorphemes[西安交大2008研]Boundmorpheme[上海交通大學2006，2007研]inflection

[四川大學2007研]compound[四川大學2007研]allophone[北京師范大學2004研]英語專業考研真題精選二、簡答題Whatarephonologicallyconditionedandmorphologicallyconditionedformofmorphemes?[武漢大學2005研]【答案】Somephonologicalfactorscanaffecttheappearanceofmorphemes,namely,theformofamorpheme;andtherecouldbeassimilation,anddissmilation.Forexample,thenegativemorphemecouldberealizedas“in-”or“im-”followedbydifferentphonologicalenvironments,asin“inefficient”and“imperfect”,asaresultofassimilation.Morphemescanalsobeconditionedbymorphologicalfactors;forexample,theallomorphsofthepluralmorpheme,ascouldbeseenin“oxen”,“cows”,and“feet”.三、論述題Whatisthedistinctionbetweeninflectionalaffixesandderivationalaffixes?[四川大學2007研]【答案】Thedistinctionbetweeninflectionalmorphemesandderivationalmorphemescouldbeillustratedinthefollowingfouraspects.1.Inflectionalaffixesveryoftenonlyaddaminuteordelicategrammaticalmeaningtothestem,forinstance,thoseinflectionalaffixesinwordssuchastoys,walks,John’s,etc.Therefore,theyservetoproducedifferentformsofasingleword.Incontrast,derivationalaffixesoftenchangethelexicalmeaning,egcite,citation;generate,generation.2.Inflectionalaffixesdonotchangethewordclassofthewordtheyattachto,suchasflower,flowers;whereasderivationalaffixesmightormightnot,suchastherelationbetweensmallandsmallnessfortheformer,andthatbetweenbrotherandbrotherhoodforthelatter.3.Veryofteninflectionalaffixesareconditionedbynon-semanticlinguisticfactorsoutsidethewordtheyattachtobutwithinthephraseorsentence.Whereasderivationalaffixesaremoreoftenbasedonsimplemeaningdistinctions.4.InEnglish,inflectionalaffixesaremostlysuffixes,whicharealwayswordfinal.Butderivationalaffixescanbeprefixesorsuffixes.四、選擇題1.

otherthancompoundsmaybedividedintorootsandaffixes.

[大連外國語學院2008研]A.PolymorphemicwordsB.BoundmorphemesC.Freemorphemes【答案】A2.Whichtwotermscanbestdescribethefollowingpairsofwords:table—tables,day+break—daybreak.

[大連外國語學院2008研]A.inflectionandcompoundB.compoundandderivationC.inflectionandderivation【答案】A3.Compoundwordsconsistof

morphemes.

[北京第二外國語學院2003研]A.bound B.free C.bothboundandfree【答案】B五、填空題1.Therearetwofieldsofmorphology:thestudyof

andthestudyof

.

[人大2006研]【答案】inflectional；lexical/derivational2.A

morphemeisonethatcannotconstituteawordbyitself.

[北京第二外國語學院2003研]【答案】bound3.

isabranchoflinguisticsthatstudiestheinterrelationshipbetweenphonologyandmorphology.

[南開大學2007研]【答案】Morphophonology六、判斷正誤1.Thewordof“impossibility”containsfourmorphemes.[對外經濟貿易大學2006研]【答案】F2.Both“use”and“books”contain/s/,whichcanberegardedasaphonemeandamorphemeaswell.[北京第二外國語學院2005研]【答案】F3.Thewords“water”and“teacher”haveacommonphonemeandacommonmorphemeaswell.[北京第二外國語學院2006研]【答案】F4.Thewords“boys”and“raise”haveacommonphonemeandacommonmorphemeaswell.

[北京第二外國語學院2008研]【答案】F3.LexicalChange3.1Lexicalchangeproper(特有的詞匯變化)1)Invention(新創詞語):

Kodak,Coke,nylon,granola2)

Blending(混成法):acomplexformofcompounding,inwhichtwowordsareblendedbyjoiningtheinitialpartofthefirstwordandthefinalpartofthesecondword,orbyjoiningtheinitialpartsofthetwowords64transfer+resistor>transistorsmoke+fog>smogmotorist+hotel>motelbreakfast+lunch>brunchmodulator+demodulator>modemdance+exercise>dancerciseadvertisement+editorial>advertorialeducation+entertainment>edutainmentinformation+commercial>infomercial653)Abbreviation(縮寫詞):Clipping(截斷法)Anewwordiscreatedbycuttingthefinalpart,cuttingtheinitialpart,andcuttingboththeinitialandfinalpartsaccordingly.Back-clippings:

ad(vertisement),chimp(anzee),deli(catessen),exam(ination),hippo(potamus),lab(oratory),piano(forte),reg(ulation)sFore-clippings:

(ham)burger,(omni)bus,(violin)cello,(heli)copter,(alli)gator,(tele)phone,(earth)quake.Fore-and-aftclippings:(in)flu(enza),(de)tec(tive).AlsousedforEnglishnames:Bob—Robert,Liz—ElizabethAlsopopularineducation:chem—chemistry,exam—examination,gym—gymnasium,lab—laboratory,math—mathematics

664)Acronym(縮寫詞):madeupfromthefirstlettersofthenameofanorganization,whichhasaheavilymodifiedheadwordCIACentralIntelligenceAgencyEECEuropeanEconomicCommunityUNESCOUnitednationsEducational,Scientific,andCulturalOrganization

WTOWorldTradeOrganizationWBWorldBankThisprocessiswidelyusedinshorteningextremelylongwordsofwordgroupsinscience,technologyandotherspecialfields.Aids:AcquiredImmuneDeficiencySyndromeCOBOL:commonbusinessorientedlanguageCD-ROM:compactdiscread-onlymemoryRadar:radiodetectingandrangingSARS:severeacuterespiratorysyndromeWASP:whiteAnglo-Saxonprotestant675)Back-formation(逆構詞法):anabnormaltypeofwordformationbywhichashorterwordisderivedbydeletinganimaginedaffixfromalongerformalreadyinthelanguage

gangling→gangleeditor→editpeddler→peddlehawker→hawkenthusiasm→enthuselaser→lasecalmative→calmfreeassociation→free-associate

686)Analogicalcreation(類推構詞):Itcanaccountfortheco-existenceoftwoforms,regularandirregular,intheconjugationofsomeEnglishverbs.

Fromirregulartoregular:work:wrought>workedbeseech:besought>beseechedslay:slew>slayed?697)Borrowing(借詞):Borrowfromotherlanguages.Greek,Latin,French,Spanish,ArabicandotherlanguagesFrench:administration,parliament,public,revenue,tax;court,crime,defendant,judge,jury,justice,pardon,sue;army,enemy,guard,officer,peace,soldier,war;clergy,faith